Defining Hot Spots As a Crime Analyst Coursework

Defining Hot Spots As a Crime Analyst - Coursework typeChainey and Ratcliffe (2006, p. 10) explains that are identified areas on a map that are characterized by a high military capability of nuisance. These areas are developed so that analysts and researchers can come across the identified geographic areas, in relation to curse. The crime sulphurousspot is a geographical analysis. It is developed basing on the crime pin maps of a reported woeful events, over a given period of time. Chainey and Ratcliffe (2006, p. 13) maintains that crime hotspots can vary. It can either be a small building, indoors a certain location, or even a certain locality within a community. However, the occurrence of crime must be persistent, for at least one year. Theorists and researchers normally examine the development of crime hotspots, and the reasons as to why crime is prevalent in these hotspots. Chainey and Ratcliffe (2006, p. 9) explains that coming up with a map that identifies certain hotsp ot is an influential and critical tool of policing.This is because they provide an understanding and knowledge of contrary areas within a town, and on how best to secure these areas. Chainey and Ratcliffe (2006, p. 22) believes that by identifying small areas where crime is prone, their would be a reduction of crime rates within the country. This is because the police would concentrate in these tiny areas leading to a reduction in the overall rates of crime. There exist three major types of crime hot spots, namely, crime generators, crime attractors, and crime enablers. Crime generators are physical places whereby large numbers of people fill for purposes that are not related to crime (Chainey and Ratcliffe, 2006, p.10).These areas provide an opportunity for criminals and offenders to engage in a crime or a disorder. Examples of crime generators include transportation hubs, shopping malls, sporting events, and festivals. Examples of criminal activities that these places are

Crime in Context (SC2032C) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Crime in Context (SC2032C) - Essay ExampleWhat is interesting about this form of aversion is that, due to its sheer effects and implications on many separate fields of studies, it is no longer viewed just as a percentage of criminology, or not even just as sociology, but is also involved in other fields like economic, anthropology, law political science and history (Klaus von Lampe 2006). Suffice it to say that it has become a discipline itself, and is studied as a separate and special field of fill, having its own literature and figures for probe and analysis. Academic sources are drawn from entirely sorts of fields, and likewise, it has influenced many areas of national and international interaction, especially with the advancement in modern technology (Fiorentini, G & Peltzman, S. 1995).This paper aims at laying down a foundation to the study of nonionic crime, touching upon its many definitions and theories, its parts and their effects on modern as well as historic human societies, and methods and procedures to regulate and control the spread and effects of operations that have been established as unionized crime.Definitions during the study of crime over the past ... The term organised crime was first coined by the scratch Crime Commission in 1919 (Concept and Theory of Organised Crime in the USA 1999). Since then, this type of crime has taken up different forms and methodologies, depending upon the time in history, the places and cultures associated with it, and the effects it has as a result of the iniquitous activities of its doers. There is no one crime type that can be labeled as organised crime (Donald R. 1972). However, whatever the scenario, there are certain basic underlying characteristics that are true to all its forms. Broadly speaking, organised crime can be defined as the activities and operations undertaken by a group of criminals who have a hierarchically structured party, monetary acquisitions and funding, and political influen ces and backup to support their wide-ranging interests, involving a rampant use of violence to protect those interests (Wikipedia 2007). In short, as defined by the US Organised Crime Control Act of 1970, organized crime is The unlawful activities of ... a highly organised, discipline association....Studying the various definitions of organised crime is in effect studying the different natures and perspectives in which this type of crime occurs, because each incident in itself has the potential to mold how organised crime is viewed and how it can be controlled. Different sources, according to the kind of facts and figures and data they have collected during their study, put forward different aspects of the crime. adept form of the crime could be for supplying

Renoirs adaptation of maupassants A counrty excursion Essay

Renoirs adjustment of maupassants A counrty excursion - Essay ExampleIn the context of French plastic need, works of such iconic writers as Victor Hugo, Emile Zola and Alexander Dumas were heavily drawn upon. Guy de Maupassants all of a sudden story A res publica Excursion is one among many instances of early cinema embracing literature. But there are numerous challenges in adapting a work of art to a radically different medium. Theatre and cinema can be said to share both(prenominal) affinity in terms of principles of mise-en-scene, accepted rules of screen-play, shared out exploration of genres, and so on But literature to film is a big leap and film idealogue Dudley Andrew identifies three basic types of rendering borrowing, intersecting and transforming sources. In the case of A Day in the Country to varying degrees all the three types are at play. Borrowing The film is said to be borrowed from the short story to the extent that there is divergence in their details pe rtaining to characterization, geographic description, projection of individual motive, etc. In borrowing, the artist employs, more or less extensively, the material, idea, or form of an earlier, generally successful text...the translation hopes to win an audience by the prestige of its borrowed title or subject...at the same time it seeks to gain a certain respectability, if not aesthetic value, as a dividend in the transaction. (Andrew, p.422) Renoirs work satisfies some of these criteria better than others. Certainly the literary work is the very basis for the project of the film. Moreover, Maupassant was a household comprise in early twentieth century France, and thus brings a degree of prestige to the project at hand. But the particular short story, A Country Excursion, does not have the same name reminiscence as its author does. Renoirs enterprise does succeed in fulfill the twin key criteria of saving respectability and aesthetic value to the transaction. The cinema produc ed is no injustice to the artistic standards of its source. The additional provisions afforded by the new medium add more vibrancy and color to the source text. So the idea of the film can certainly be said to have been borrowed, though with certain qualifications. Intersection This form of adaptation is found to be the weakest in A Day in the Country. Intersection is the most infidel methods of transmuting wrangling to film due to its limited objective. The goal of the filmmaker is less constrained, for he/she is not concerned with the replete(p) written work but only one idea/feature within it. The task then(prenominal) is to experiment and find out what cinema as a medium can do to the original. At its heart is creative curiosity and experimentation on the part of the director. Renowned French film dilettante Andre Bazin has expressed intersection through the metaphor of light. Andrews paraphrases Bazin thus, here the original artwork can be likened to a crystal chandelier wh ose formal beauty is a product of its intricate but fully imitative arrangement of parts while the cinema would be a crude flashlight intersecting not for its own shape or the quality of its light but for what it makes appear in this or that regretful corner (Andrews, p.423) Seen in light of this definition, A Day in the Country is the cinematic intersection of the literary work, for it brings to the table unique cinematic qualities of expression. This is most evident in passages in the film where dialogue takes

Galen Strawson Considers Freedom of Will to Be Profanation Essay

Galen Strawson Considers Freedom of Will to Be Profanation - probe ExampleI disagree with Strawsons position and posit that humans drive out and should be held responsible for(p) for their actions because, as Strawson points out, even if the situation is such that you throw off a gun to your head, you still have a choice. The unpleasantness of the choice does not nullify the presence of the choice or the fact that we always have the weft to choose either the pleasant or more tolerable route over the unpleasant pickax and vice versa.According to Strawsons analysis, humans lack the capacity to make gratuitous choices. The influences of society, p arnts, friends, teachers, and all of the contributory factors that physique each of us into the unique individuals we are countermand our ability to freely make decisions. Since we do not control who we are and who we determine the decisions we make, logic dictates that we are not engaging in free get out because we did not have the p ower to shape who we are. Additionally, Strawson states that, even if a person changes who they are, this does not mean they have free impart because heredity and experience have already affected you in ways that you can never change. The way a person is ultimately has a significant effect on how they are able to change and what attributes they are able to change, which causes the redundancy in the whole concept of change to allay free will.Strawson begins by presenting the gamut of views concerning free will from the perspective of the Compatibilists and the Libertarian and No-Freedom Incompatibilists. The philosophical view of the Compatibilist is that humans have free will and are morally responsible for their actions (Strawson, 1995). According to Strawson, Compatibilists base their analysis of the condition of free will on the fact that it is compatible with the concept of determinism, which states that each action creates a pattern that makes subsequent actions or reactions unavoidable.This theory deems the determining factors that affect personality irrelevant and maintain that free will is absolute, despite the inclusion body of determinism. However, the presence of determinism in the Compatibilist view of free will actually nullify the viewpoint because how can you freely choose an option that has been predetermined?

Movie Alice in wonderland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Movie Alice in wonderland - examine ExampleTim Burtons portrayal of Underland is visually unique as is his point of view. Burton as director is inbred to the overall look and feel of the film. This film grossed $319.3 million at the box office and DVD gross sales to date. The setting of the film at times is rather creepy. This Alice is unlike any others in the Alice and Wonderland films previously made. Alice is curious, barely strong willed and not easily swayed into what she, eventually, does by the end of the film. Alice is visually sensory, but the portrayal by the actors is weak, the report itself is rather weak. For a fantasy film it works, little kids would enjoy this film, as well, but the action and menace is just not something that Alice in Wonderland should cede shown.For a fantasy film, I would need to see at least the following three criteria. First, it must be visually immobilise, Star Wars saga falls here. Second, it must have strange and unique creatures to i ts world, e.g. Hobbit / Lord of the Rings movies. And third, there must be a quest which the target character needs to complete, whether or not it is destined for him or his own altogether, Harry Potter saga.Alice in Wonderland is visually stunning. From the colorations of the wardrobe to the design of the characters themselves, Tim Burton has a knack for stunning visualization. And like Star Wars, which is visually stunning with a grimy feeling to it, Alice in Wonderland, with its gothic, dark feeling to it, still is quite visually stunning with the varied shapes of the settings, to the wardrobe and the make-up of each and every character in the story. The visuals of a boring party, even felt as though it were stuffy in the room as I watched this scene, to the many diverse place in Undeland (as Wonderland is called in this film) where the visuals change and your feelings to go along right with them.At one point in the film, shortly after Alice arrives in

Elements of Discipline plan in Elementary school Assignment

Elements of Discipline plan in Elementary take - Assignment physical exerciseAppendix B Initial Participant Letter Appendix C Participant Informed acquiesce FormAppendix D Teacher Interview QuestionsChapter 1Overview This assignment reflects on the history of the Statesn elementary schools and struggle towards the control of improving educational standards public schools in United States of America. There be some historical issues that study been discussed in this analytical report, along with some important writers who worked very sound to introduce better standards of education in American schools, colleges and universities. It also provide with the literature review of bully historical leaders who contributed a great deal towards improving standards of elementary education in America with a history of discipline in elementary schools. It also sheds light on the most effective method of discipline.IntroductionElementary schools have been existed worldwide as the foundation of ceremonious educational system. It establishes the meanspirited for future education. It prepares students in fundamental skills and awareness and can be defined as prior to formal education that comes after that. It is an institution where children suck the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. In America, elementary school education starts from six to twelve historic period and at some institutes thirteen to cardinal as well depending on particular state of school patterns. Elementary school covers the reading, writing, introduction to accessible and natural sciences, arts and crafts and physical education. Most important responsibility of elementary school is getting affiliated with peers and creating an identification of children with society and nation. For decades, classroom management has... Elementary schools have been existed worldwide as the foundation of formal educational system. It establishes the base for future educa tion. It prepares students in fundamental skills and awareness and can be defined as prior to formal education that comes after that. It is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. In America, elementary school education starts from six to twelve forms and at some institutes thirteen to fourteen as well depending on particular state of school patterns. Elementary school covers the reading, writing, introduction to social and natural sciences, arts and crafts and physical education. Most important responsibility of elementary school is getting affiliated with peers and creating an identification of children with society and nation. For decades, classroom management has been an issue and many effective teaching lessons have bygone array due to student disruption. This critical review of the literature analyzes the elements that can be identified in a successful and effective classroom discipline plan.Duri ng science, social studies, and writing time, in my first year of teaching, it has been noticed many students getting off task.

Intermoutain Health Case Study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intermoutain health Case Study - Assignment Exampled the interdependence between the physicians and the wellness care team thus ensuring that IHCs clinical care was affordable and of high quality (Bohmer et al, 2002).The mensural impact of Dr. James clinical integration curriculum has been the increase in the competiveness of the institution within the health care industry in the region. To this effect, IHC enrolled 40% of the insured population of Utah to its Health Plans. The institution as well enrolled a significantly huge number of second tier insurers with 85,000 public employees, 73,000 educators, 52,000 mail handlers, 60,000 from CIGNA, 48,000 from Aetna, and 45,000 from waste Mutual. The institution as well enrolled many smaller insurers with fewer than 20,000 enrollees. In essence, the clinical integration program introduced by Dr. James enabled the institution enroll about 40% to 60% of the insured population to its Health Plans (Bohmer et al, 2002).The fundamental pl acements towards variability in clinical practices exhibited in this case include cost and quality. In this regard, the stead of cost aims at reducing the cost of clinical practices to ensure that the institution incurs minimal costs in its provision of health care services. The attitude of quality is the most fundamental attitude towards variability in clinical practices in which case it denotes the effectiveness and efficiency of the clinical practices. This attitude is fundamental as it influences the attitude of cost on the basis that high standards of quality influence minimal costs for clinical practices (Bohmer et al, 2002).The function of the shadow organization in clinical round-the-clock quality approach is to foster and influence the continuous quality improvement process by undertaking initiatives that aim at ensuring continuous quality improvement. In light of this, Intermountain Health Care serves this role through its initiation and continuous undertaking of quali ty improvement initiatives. This aspect of the organization

Texas - Water Riparian Rights (years 1836-1986) Essay

Texas - Water Riparian Rights (years 1836-1986) - Essay ExampleThe fragmented institutional structure of riparian water supply rights constituted obstacles to achieving an efficient and comprehensive water-resource management system, thus the development of a surface water appropriate system.A riparian area refers to an area that acts as an interface between impart, and a stream or river consequently, riparian water rights refers to the system of allocating water on the basis of riparian land ownership. The Riparian tenet was introduce in Texas over 200 years ago by Hispanic settlers in San Antonio, Texas the Hispanic practices and legal principles became the blue print from which land title was minded(p). During this time, and through the 19th Century, riparian land was granted and the benefits included the right of riparian land owners to take water from the streams and rivers for purposes of irrigation. This can be best show in the case of Motl v Boyd (1926) the case was abou t the rights of Hispanics to take water from streams for irrigation (Rio Grande). In this case, the Supreme judicatory of Texas decided that the owner of riparian land had the right to use riparian waters not unless for household and domestic purposes, but for irrigation purposes as well (Hutchins 517).Riparian rights were affected by a equal of artificial and natural challenges first there was the question of what constituted a river bed, a section of the riparian zone that would be owned by the state. Secondly, there was the question of defining the rivers banks since the boundary was ever ever-changing due to manmade or natural reasons. Effects such as erosion, accretion, avulsion, subsidence and dereliction resulted in the unsteady of boundaries, reducing or increasing the state owned river bed and the private owned riparian land (Powell 7).In 1840, the state of Texas abolished the Spanish riparian doctrine and embraced the English riparian common law with a few exceptions f rom the doctrine this was later

The Significance of Home as a Impotent Subject in Modern Architecture Essay

The Significance of Home as a powerless Subject in Modern Architecture - Essay ExampleThis paper aims to study and understand the strain of new-m fruit drink architecture towards housing designs and its importance. For this purpose, Le Corbusier has been selected as an individual architect of upstart architecture who form various principles for sept designs. A number of factors have been added in the discussion paper to understand the ecstasy of significance given to house design by the modern architects. Before understanding the context of the modern architecture and housing design, it is important to understand the vision of Le Corbusier. The Swiss architect was famous for his urban designing and theories that were later worked upon by various writers. It comes visible from his theories that home needed a revamp as traditional homes had limits in providing relation and signatory style to its owner. Most importantly, the defensible space theory was in like manner formulated i n this context. It was noted that houses were no less than a sacred place for people to anticipate in. They had a control over their spaces and everything that was in that space. It was for this reason that the modern architects had to come up with new features of house design. It was for this reason that the modern architecture experienced new features in the design and architecture of housing projects. These include the inclusion of pilotis, assuage plan, roof garden etc1. The addition of pilots in the house design in modern architecture allowed the mass to be held in elevation as it provided support. It can be marked that excess plan was obtained with the help of separation of load-bearing columns. These columns rather worked as a base for creating walls to divide the free plan into different spaces. In addition, it should be noted that Le Corbusier made use of the free faade that provided corollary which further created the vertical plane for house designing2. The material wh ich was previously being used by the architects in like manner changed to a great extent.

Strategy and change management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

dodge and change management - Essay ExampleTherefore, several leading respiratory tracts fetch decided to merge with all(prenominal) other in order to reduce several business threats.Delta Airlines, Inc. and Northwest Airline Corp. in 2008 have proclaimed that they are going to merge with each other in order to create foundings largest airline named Delta. . Due to merger, the flexibility to acclimatize to the economic challenges of Delta has increased. After the merger, Northwest Airline is the all told owned subsidiary of Delta. According to the market characteristic theory of low-cost airlines, it is feasible that low-cost airlines normally compete in such a market where the traveller density is high enough to divulge the competitive advantages by offering rapid-return and time to time services.Lower fares usually results from the economies of traffic density. This type of economies of dental plate is one of the key features in the airline network model. Such strategic acti ons also bring sealed non-price benefits also. Current trends towards the product differentiation seem to be one of the elements of competition. Due to such strategic actions the airline companies have increased incentive to correspond and improve customer service quality.Due to the economic waste turn the company along with the whole airlines companies in Europe and America went through a snarly phase. The competition has been intense regarding fares, services and routes. Also the company indulged in to a legal battle with the federation airlines. A problem faced by the company has been the over dependence on the North-American marketamalgamation and acquisition in airline industry is one of the interesting topics within the industry. The airline industry has experienced high disorder due to high operational cost and increasing price of petrol (Hackbarth and Miao, 2007, p.33). The record will reveal the effect of merger on the business performance of two leading airlines

Dispersed Team Dynamics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Dispersed Team Dynamics - Assignment ExampleConflicts generally occur when there is divagation in opinions and interest between individuals. accord to a study by Lambregts (2011), there are much chances of conflicts in collective activities in which regular communications and interpersonal relationships are less feasible as in virtual team ups (pp.10-11). The conflicts may be of different nature. In a virtual team frame, commonly there are many independent groups working on a linear relationship with the prudence at the headquarters. Therefore there can be conflicts among groups, individuals in the same group or individuals crosswise different groups. Different scholars have varying opinions about the category of conflicts in a virtual team. According to Kankanhalli, Tan and Wei (n.d.), conflicts within a team can either be relationship conflicts or trade union movement conflicts. Personal conflicts occur as a result of increasing tensions and frictions between employees due to mutual contrariety on a particular issue or due to egos and emotional clashes during the routines. Task conflicts generally come out around the methods and processes associated with the given assignments and the responsibilities to accomplish them. According to Professor Lindred Greer (as cite in Petersen (2014), the physical distances and the cultural differences among the team members can affect the quality of communication, and the responses to disagreements can reflect in the negative productivity of the team. The basic movement for this aspect is the unavailability of individuals for personal interactions at the required times of response to proposals and complaints in the process.Conflicts are fitted of self-replication when they are not resolved promptly. Hence it is important for the leaders to create a mechanism to image the possibility of issues within the team. A typical analysis of the nature of conflicts can work as a measure to predict the possibility of

Realism as a Method to Depict Immediacy Unexpectedness and Wonder in Essay

Realism as a Method to key Immediacy Unexpectedness and Wonder in Berninis Apollo and Daphne and Poussins Et in Arcadia Ego - Essay ExampleIts that prisonbreak of stasis that I felt the night my ex dropped the we need to talk line on me. Its banality and immature to dwell on emotional turmoil, yet that night my roommate got an earful of conversations and complaints. Before act in for the night, he left me with that old as time adage that has passed through nearly every broken heart. You cant understand happiness without feeling pain, he told me, and as cliche as the phrase is, it is console something I hold to be true. As I studied Apollo and Daphne1 and Et in Arcadia Ego2, I couldnt help but wonder if Gian Bernini and Nicolas Poussin were attempting to express the same heartache that is so central to this merciful condition we share. Beyond the longing gaze in Apollos eyes and the lamenting stare of the sheepherders face, what drew me to this question were not the works themsel ves, but the emotions I felt because of the works. To capture these emotions, Bernini and Poussin combine a novel technique of using realism as a means to achieve the awed effect so common to fancy visual acculturation. In his 1998 book Italian Baroque Sculpture, Boucher highlights the concomitant that awe-inspiring effects such as immediacy and mimicry, and the unexpected and the surprising were all prized by Baroque artists3. ... It is for this reason that it became star of the most important aims of Italian Baroque sculpture to represent flesh as flesh4 . While this quote focuses on sculpture, this emphasis on a realistic title was central to all Baroque visual culture. Combining realistic figures with the shocking imagery of a cleaning ladyhood turning into a tree or a forgotten tomb in the middle of a field created these desired effects. Because realism is necessary for the effects of immediacy, unexpectedness, and wonder, realism was essential to Baroque visual cultur e and was skillfully incorporated into the works Apollo and Daphne and Et in Arcadia Ego. The most obvious effect in Berninis sculpture is one that is highly associated with Baroque visual culture immediacy. In his article The Element of Motion in Baroque Art and Music, William Flemming describes this increased feeling of immediacy in Baroque culture by saying, The Baroque period brought about a quickening of the pulse of human affairs. It was an age of movement, activity, exploration. Time is of extremity importance. The mechanical clock becomes the dominant symbol of this period and performs the unique function of translating the movements of time into spatial dimensions. If one is to follow this symbolism to Berninis sculpture, then Daphnes extended arm is minutes away from touch twelve an obvious symbol of the immediacy felt in the scene. This sculpture is not a still life this is the peak of action in a moment that will define the lives of these two gods forever. To barely d epict this scene with a realistic style would completely miss the specter of a woman turning into a tree, yet to completely focus on the tree would be to ignore the metamorphosis. This is where Berninis true genius is

Compare and contrast save the children uk and actionaid uk Essay

Compargon and contrast save the children uk and actionaid uk - Essay ExampleWithin just 10 geezerhood it was able to stretch in many other countries such as Spain, France, Italy and Ireland. (ActionAid, 2010) Recently, it has reached 40 countries knowledge basewide struggle impoverishment and helping over 13 million people.ActionAid is working with a motive to end poverty and providing children with quality education. It helps the poor in organization against injustice and to demand the entitlement of their rights from their government. (ActionAid, 2010)They have partners all over the world from large to small entities forming international networks and national alliances, working together for justice, giving education, working for women rights, working against diseases and terrible solutions for the currently faced organizations.Save the children is a UK based charity organization, set up for the rights of children and saving lives in emergencies. It also campaigns for the righ ts of children and providing a helping hand in their future. (Save the Children, 2010)Save the Children was set up 90 historic period ago, in 1919, by a women Eglantyne Jebb. (Save the Children, 2010) It was based in the UK. The organization has now extended to about 50 odd countries throughout the world and has been able to reach over 6 Million children worldwide.Governance refers to the trading operations and management of an organization or a country. It is governed by the board of trustees which is headed by Andrew Purkis, who has been the chair of three sanitary known charities. (ActionAid, 2010) It has few of the most competent people taking prominent places in the board are responsible for the major decisions. The board works on the principles of accountability, transparency and honesty for the interest of the people.It operates with a mannikin of good governance as it tries to attain the concept of globalization by participating along with some(prenominal) of the famous organizations such as the World Trade Organization, International Monetary fund and World

Strategic and Financial Decision-making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Strategic and Financial Decision-making - Essay ExampleBoth the companies are listed on a lower floor FTSE 100.Under CAPM the calculation of cost of capital depends on the principle that the rate of return required on a security is equal to the risk-free rate of interest plus a risk premium, establish on the following formula-Therefore the beta of Sage Group as per calculations is less than the beta that has been published in Bloomberg site and the beta of Diageo Plc as per calculations is also less than that has been published in this site. There enkindle be many reasons for this contravention. Like in the slick of data like beta that is reported by a site the calculations are more(prenominal) extensive. For the purpose of the calculations, the monthly returns relating to the last twenty four months provided has been taken. But the beta estimation in Bloomberg is based on either daily returns or quarterly returns over a long span of time. near sites base their calculations on the data since the stock inception. As the beta calculated by these sites is based on a longer span of time thusly they are more reliable as it covers a larger number of data points. So the difference in time frame can result in different beta estimates. Some of the pecuniary services use weekly observations while others use monthly observations whereas others base their calculations on the last mean solar day of trading.Another reason for the varying beta is that they are calculated using different indices in the market. Some sources use Standard & Poor 500 as the benchmark index, some use Russell 1000, 2000 and others use look on Line Index. In such situations the best way is to choose which provides the beta for most of the companies in the road map (Pratt & Niculita, 2007, pp.211)It may be possible that the fundamentals of the company have changed over time in that case the beta that is calculated based on a recent period is more reliable (Pratt & Grabowski, 2008, pp.141). establish on this it can be said that the beta based on the recent period is more reliable as

Evolution of the Problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evolution of the Problem - Essay ExampleDue to the work nature of their services and the unique administrative framework, we expect substantial variations in the results of such investigations. Primarily, the NHCGL is a military hospital that aims at higher standards of service but not necessarily higher profitability. The administration is naturally not inclined to streamlining the organisation and optimising functionality as long as the services are not visibly affected. As the organisation grows larger it beocmes more and more difficult to alter the existing systems and the urger to continue with the circulating(prenominal) practices becomes stronger thwarting efforts of change.The structure of most hospitals evolved as a response to their main function which is to cure patients with a great diversity of diseases in an effective way and with a minimum of risk, using most mod medical techonologies available (Don and Wolff, 1988). The core activities are performed by highly tra ined professionals- medical specialists in the wooing of hospitals. Their activities are highly standardized and they work relatively independetly of their colleagues though in close contact with their patients. This gives the health care organiational structure a certain looseness so that the tasks of the other members are not surface defined. This was documented as early as 1988 in a hear by Don Wallis and Charles Johannes Wolff. Their study also showed that the differentiation of tasks and the flexibility of rotations were slighter in public hospitals as compared to private hospitals. Hospitals be in possession of less formalisation and functional differentiation than industrial firms. In hospitals, the number of different medical specialisations and the differentiation of nurse departments are quite independent of each other.In summary, the existence of various communication related issues have been allowed to exist and even develop in the military

Little Prince by Antoine De Saint-Exupery Essay Example for Free

tiny Prince by Antoine De Saint-Exupery EssayThe Little Prince or Le Petit Prince was inspired by the author Antoine de Saint Exuperys historical life experience and comely added falseized images to make it real and understandcapable. It became the marvelous bind written for children. Sold over 140,000,000 copies worldwide into more than 250 languages and has been unrivaled of the best-selling books published ever. According to Paris-based Saint-Exupery Foundation, The Little Prince is the most translated book in hi legend after The Bible. It as well cognise as childrens fable for adult as it conveys pro set up and idealistic views in human nature and its settings. Until now, The Little Prince is facilitate the most advisable book not only for the children only if excessively to the adults to read.Antoine de Saint Exupery was a French aviator and writer who became more popular with this novella, which was written in grade 1943. After failing in a university preparat ory school and was not able to pursue his real dream to become a naval officer. He entered into a different field which is architecture but still resulted in failures and he did not even graduated. In 1921, he started his military service and was displace to Strasbourg for training as a pilot. In 1926 he became one of the pioneers of international postal flight. Until an accident happened in 1935 wherein a sudden machine failure strike and crashed it in the Libyah Sahara desert. In four days of experiencing dehydration, in that respect was a Bedouin on a camel discovered them and saved their lives.The book begins with the narrator, which is the Pilot reminiscing the days when he was a six year old boy. He was trying to track down a feather boa constrictor and shows it to the grown-ups, but they ever so advise that he should stop dreaming to become an artist instead he should focus in geographics, grammar, arithmetic and hi stratum. So he gave up his dream to become an artist an d choose another affair which is to pilot airplanes. And whenever he met someone, he invariably showed his drawings of boa constrictor and asked them if they write out it. But he always gets an coiffure of Thats a hat. Then he would never talk to that person about boa constrictor again. Until a plane crash accident happened in Sahara Desert and he met the pocket-sized prince that asking him to draw a sheep. After three attempts and failed to draw a sheep, he decided to draw a cuff instead and explained that the sheep were inside of it. That was the start of their friendship.The narrator soon pitch out that the tiny prince came from what he called his orbiter which is Asteroid B-612. Where there can be found a baobabs, a two active volcanoes and a flower. As each day passed, the narrator soon learned to know the flower. Its importance and the way it was interact by the prince. When the prince is about to travel onto the other satellite, he found himself in the neighborhood of asteroids 325, 326, 327, 328, 329 and 330. The first of them was populate by a king, who was said to rule everything but the real thing is its completely nothing. The sec satellite was live by a conceited man, who always think that everyone were his admirer. The third orbiter was inhabited by a tippler, who is not consistent with what hes saying. The fourth planet belonged to a businessman, who is reside in counting stars and also believes that he owns them. The fifth planet was the smallest planet wherein there was safe a street lamp and a lamplighter.The little prince has thought that the lamplighter could be his friend and also because of the 1440 sunsets it has every day, but the planet is too small for them. The sixth planet was ten times larger than the last one. It was inhabited by a geographer who wrote voluminous books. He was thought as an explorer and was asked several questions in his own planet. On the latter part, the geographer advised the planet Earth as th e best to visit. When the little prince arrived in on the planet earth, he first met a snake claims that through his poison he can bring the little prince back to his planet. Had talk to a three-petaled flower, climbed in to highest mountain hoping to see a human. Then he found a rose garden that do him depressed because he thought of his flower in his planet which acclaimed shes one of a kind. He also met a fox and they became friends.The fox made him imbibe what makes his flower unique is because of the way he gave importance to it. The prince continued his journey where he met the railway switchman and a merchant. He discovered lot of new things about differences of grown-ups and the children. Back to the present, the narrator experiencing dehydration and with the help of the little prince, he found a well. Later he found out that the little prince was deciding to go back to his planet for his flower through the help of the snake.The little prince made a very mushy f arwell bu t the narrator refuses to leave him alone in the desert. Soon, the little prince allowed the snake to bite him and travel without making a sign. The next morning, the narrator was not able to find the body of the little prince and cerebrate that he must be already at his planet. The story ends with a portrait of the landscape where they nurture met. Making the referees operate on if some day they will be in African desert, and will watch a little man with the same characteristics. That will surely be the little prince.The Little Prince is known as a children fable and an example of allegory. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines allegory as the expression by gist of symbolic fictional figures and actions of truths or generalizations about human existence. There ar many symbolic fictional figures to consider in the story. First the stars, it symbolizes the feeling and emotions of humans. It also symbolizes the mystery of the universe. Secondly, the planets and the remarkable per sons can be found on it. They symbolize the group of people, where different type or attitudes of grown-ups are in. Thirdly, the rose symbolizes as the ottoman zone. If you wont get out of it, you wont discover or know a lot of important things. Fourthly, the trains which can be found in Chapter 22, it symbolizes the things how people rushed things and wasnt able to see the importance of its existence. Lastly, the water symbolizes a spiritual fulfillment or as a design for what supposed to be done.The point of view in the poem is a first person, which is the pilot. But largely focuses in narrating the story up to the end.Still the question is, who is this book really written for? Yes, it has been said that this is unspoiled for both children and adults. But there are some ideologies might not be understandable for the children, just like the bizarre story of a little prince that fell in love with his flower. And for the adults wherein their negative horizon has been criticize. Is that what really the book for? A blogger named Erin (2008) of Goodreads said that We are all children in adults bodies. Yes we are, dont think we arent for one moment.The event that we WERE, indeed, children, is a huge part of each of us. It is possible to shed a few appreciative divide on every page of this book if you entertain the thought that the pilot IS The Little Prince. Maybe you habitude think thatmaybe youll have your own take on the bookthats the magic about itConsider honoring the Little You that still remains, and resides within you, and read this salute to childhood, to innocence, and to you. It just takes a Little imagination and bravery.This book is made to tickle the imagination of the children as well as to show sort of the reality about grown-ups. all story has its own moral lesson. In this story, children can have their own realisation on recitation it. Adults can also have their own insights about themselves.Its good for the children to read because of its illustration, based on an open source site Wikipedia, The Little Prince was illustrated through watercolors painted personally by Exupery. Another extraterrestrial reviewer noted that the author Exupery chose the best illustrations to maintain the ethereal regulate he wanted his story to exude. Choosing between ambiguity and literal text and illustrations, Saint-Exupry chose in every case to obfuscate. overly, good for the young adults because of its waggish attack in portraying values.The mood is first a mystery, wherein the little prince did not reveal where he comes from. It captures the imagination of the readers. Until pieces by pieces it became adventure when the little prince started to tell the story of his journey in seven planets including the Earth.The tone of the story is much more with world regretful when the little prince left his flower alone in his planet. Curiosity in the part of the narrator about his real identity and where did he came from. Happiness an d gloom all throughout the days were the narrator and the little prince were together in the desert. But at the end, still being able to treasure the moments they have together makes each characters happy.Philosophical approach is used because it for the most part focuses in dealing with the undesirable values of grown-ups. Then a part of it is Biographical because some scenes are almost similar with the experience of the author. Example of this is the narrators boa constrictor drawing but grown-ups were always telling him that its a hat. For the author, this scene may be similar when he failed to enter in the preparatory university school and wasnt able to pursue his dreams. Instead he ended up for being an aviator.There is also a part of Introspective approach as cited in by Wahlig (2010), its a reader-response approach, where the reader takes an active role in garnering meaning or value from a text. The reader is responsible for taking an inventory of her own biases, values or assumptions prior to edition and pinpointing the ways that a text challenges or reinforces those traits. Introspective approaches also value the subjectivity of the readers experience and assume that an objective reading is either impossible or no more valuable than a subjective reading. It occurs when it simply engage the readers if through their own experiences in dealing with the attitude of grown-ups and will make a self realization if the books telling the truth towards their attitudes.As the mostly recommended book for children, the writer executed a different type of writing or illustrating the story. Exupery stated on page 19, chapter 4 of the Little Prince Figures are a matter of indifference. I should have liked to begin this story in the fashion of the fairy-tales. I should have like to say Once upon a time there was a little prince who lived on a planet that was scarcely any bigger than himself, and who had need of a sheep to those who understand life, that would have minded(p) a much greater air of truth to my story. The way he uniquely narrate the story is one factor why this became remarkable not only to the children but also to the French literature.This book is full of symbols and meanings, but what are the moral lessons?Valuing life as well as the little things on it is the highlight of this story. Everything we say or show to others will reflect to everyones whos involved until the end. erect like what happened to the narrator of the story, he wanted to be an artist and also tried to show his drawings numbers one and two to the grown-ups of a boa constrictor. But he always gets a wrong description and insisting him not to pursue his dream of being an artist instead focus on grammar, arithmetic, geography and history.The negative side of it reflected when he became a pilot, and someone asked him to draw a sheep. He did not know how to draw anything aside from boa constrictor since he stopped to draw when he failed about his boa constrict or. Also in reality, the way how people look more in to the physical appearance than to the inner side. alike(p) on Chapter 4, where there was a Turkish astronomer in 1909 in a Turkish costume. goose egg believed on what he said about asteroid B-612 because of his look. And when he tried to present it again in European costume, everybody accepted his report.It is only with the heart that one can see rightly what is essential is invisible to eye.Grown-ups are indeed so much like that, for them figures are more important than its meaning. The interpretation or understanding of the story will always depend on how it will touch ones heart.References* Adamson, Thomas Little Prince discovery offers new insight into classic book, The Times Tribune May 2012 * De Saint- Exupery, Antoine, The Little Prince, B. Jainist Publishers (P) Ltd. * Goodreads, The Little Princehttp//www.goodreads.com/book/show/157993.The_Little_Prince* Wahlig, Hannah, Types of Approaches in Literary Analysis, http/ /www.ehow.com/info_8368198_types-approaches-literary-analysis.html * Wikipedia, Antoine De Saint-Exupery http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_De_Saint_Exupery * Wikipedia, TheLittle Princehttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Prince

Market Structures Essay Example for Free

Market Structures Essay from each one market building plays a significant role in the economy. Markets argon categorized according to the structure of each industry serving the market. Three of the basic market structures include competitive markets, monopolies, and oligopolies. These differ collect to the different number of strength of buyers and sellers and also the level of collusion between them. There are stages of opposition and magnitude of the difference in products. When there are many buyers and sellers of a product then incomplete inviolables are able influence prices, therefore making it competitive. In competitive markets there are not restraints on firms going in and out of the market and buyers can purchase the same product or products from many sellers and get the same products. For example, potatoes are in the competitive market because consumers can befall a potato farm that offers them at the lowest market price, and they can produce however much they d esire or as much as they can profit from at the going rate. There are many options for buyers because, with the knowledge, there is a lower price so they can always observe to find the best price. Lets say a good/product is $10 at the market price and a firm produces 10 units per day.The total revenue for the day would be $100 ($10 x 10 = $100), but the marginal revenue with producing the eleventh unit per day would increase from $100 to $ 110 ( 11 x $10). However marginal cost do vary depending on the total of goods produced. For example, a firm may increase input so marginal cost is equal to the market price. As extensive as the market price covers the variable cost there is incentive to stay in business, and by chance in the long run maximize profits (Jeffery Ely, 2012). So basically with a numerous amount of buyers and sellers in the market it creates competition and very little bargaining power for buyers and sellers.There are unremarkably not many barriers that exist withi n competitive markets because the exit and entry levels are low. For example, even though the market for making cars competitive the upfront capitol cost are high, which can create difficulty entering, or getting started. In some cases an exit barrier may exist if a large amounts of silver is tied up in firm.

Effects of Alcohol on the Family Essay Example for Free

Effects of Alcohol on the Family EssayAlcohol Dependence, also know as intoxi rout outtism, is a very widespread disabling addictive disorder, affecting 4% of Canadians. insobriety whitethorn start innocuously, due to the acceptability of social spirituous beverage addiction, just everywhere time, piece of tail lead to serious health problems, including brain, kidney and liver upon. Although souses seem to be doing the most damage to themselves, they be hurting their families even more(prenominal). Lesser-known, but and as serious victims of alcohol squall argon the alcoholics kidskinren. The negative effects start in the womb, where drinking during pregnancy often causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, and other(a) defects. After the itch is born, the attempts continue, as the pincerren in alcoholic families tend to lack a enduring family purlieu and have a fairly high dictate of pervert. These factors, as well as genetic predisposition, atomic number 18 strong precedents to the child developing alcohol abuse problems themselves. These children also tend to show more symptoms of anxiety and depression, and have lower self esteem than children from nonalcoholic families. These factors may also contribute to the likelihood of the child becoming an alcoholic. When a few drinks has turned into a few too many a(prenominal), a few too many times, some may start to funny alcoholism.This is often how alcohol abuse starts, with acceptable social drinking increasing to the point where the drinker contribute no longer control their desire and compulsion to drink. Drinking too much(prenominal) alcohol over a long period changes the chemical balance in the brain linked to pleasure, causing the luggage com dampment to crave alcohol. Symptoms of alcoholism are frequent intoxication drinking and continuing to drink alcohol in appropriate places and times and often, denial of the problem. Due to the legality and availability of alcohol, it can be ve ry gruelling to quit or help another quit drinking, which can event in long-term alcohol abuse.When one has been abusing alcohol for long periods of time, it can cause a number of mental and physical problems, including, but not limited to liver damage, kidney damage, heart disease, alcoholic dementia, brain damage, and a myriad of psychological problems. Alcoholism also comes with a variety of comorbid disorders, most ordinarily major depressive disorder, and anxiety related disorders (Petrakis, 86).The order of the concurrence is not always clear whether these disorders resulted from the alcoholism, or whether the alcoholism was triggered by the disorders varies accordingly, but regardless, the alcoholic has a much better chance of recovery if both problems are treated together.(Medline Plus) Drinking alcohol during pregnancy has been entrap to increase health risks to the fetus, especially after the first trimester. Any amount of alcohol may combat injury a developing baby, no safe amount has yet been established however the more alcohol consumed by an expectant begin, the higher the risks are of the baby developing Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, or FAS. FAS is a series of mental and physical defects that can develop in a fetus during pregnancy if the mother has been drinking.The depicted object Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence states that approximately 5000 babies are born each class with severe FAS, and another 35000 are born with milder symptoms. If an alcoholic womans first child has FAS, the risk of her second child having FAS as well is a daunting 70%. The range of birth defects caused by FAS can be minor to major, and are nearly always long term. The infant will be born underweight and with an alcohol dependency. A detox period will follow birth, sometimes indestructible for up to several months.These babies tend to have brain and skull deformities, and can have very distinctive facial nerve features, such as small eye openings, thin uppe r lips, and long, flat faces. (Dozois, and Firestone 249-262) (Davis, and Frost 100-101) As the baby bristles, learning problems that will keep the child from progressing normally may become apparent. FAS can cause damage to the central nervous system, which may result in severe learning disabilities. Due to this, the child may have problems learning to walk, being able to sleep, and focusing on motor skills and have speech problems, earshot impairment, and decreased memory recall.They may have low self-esteem, be hyperactive, and be easily angered or frustrated. Mild or severe retardation, emotional issues, the inability to bond and communicate with other children their age are common traits for a child who suffers from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. It often results in lower and overall pedantic performance (compared to non-FAS children), and difficulties in reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics. (Dozois, and Firestone 254) Another side effect of alcoholism in the family is the l ack of a stable family environment.Alcohol has been known to negatively affect marital relationships, breaking up families, be the cause of suicide, result in unemployment and poverty, and cause or exacerbate child abuse. Over 3 times as many people report to have been previously married to an alcoholic, compared to those currently married to an alcoholic, demonstrating that relationships involving alcohol abuse are less likely to last than sober relationships. Often, if one parent is an alcoholic and the other is not, the sober companion feels that the drinking takes precedence over them and their family.This strongly affects couples with children, as they may effectively lose either parent, or end up being shuttled between them. Worse than losing a parent to divorce is the reality of losing a parent to suicide. The relationship between alcoholism and suicide is very clear, and has been well-documented. Alcohol is a depressant, and can grow on episodes of major depressive disorde r. Alcohol abuse is often either self-medication for depression, or the cause of alcoholic depression.Often, alcoholic depression is a combination of the two, a vicious cycle of triggering and self-medicating that worsens ones emotional state. This despair, have with possible unemployment marital, family, and financial problems and declining health due to drinking, results in more drinking to drink away the issues, which can push one over the edge and cause them to take their own life history. (Alcoholic. ca) Even if both parents are alive and present in a childs life, they may not always be the responsible adults and parents they are expected to be.Many severely alcoholic parents are not able to face to and fulfill their childs physical and emotional needs, and some may even require the child to prematurely assume the role of the parent and take care of the adult. They may be emotionally and financially supported by their children in cases where their alcoholism is too severe fo r them to be self-reliant and hold a steady job. If there are younger siblings, the responsibilities of parenting may line to the oldest child, sometimes in their entirety. This role backsliding is unfortunate, but all too common in families where the main caregiver is affected by way abuse and alcoholism.This also results in the children lacking proper role models to learn from, and as teenagers, are more likely to do poorly in school, or drop out entirely and not watch post-secondary education. children of alcoholics have higher rates of truancy, arrest, depression, and addiction than their peers, and are usually more aggressive, obsessive, impulsive, and have lower self-esteem. (Parsons) Child abuse adds to the instability of the life of a child with alcoholic parents. While child abuse, unlike FAS, can also occur in families without alcoholic parents, 4/5 of reported cases involved substance abuse, commonly including alcohol.Alcoholism is also more prevalent among child-abu sing parents than those who do not abuse their children, and is more commonly associated with child abuse than any other disorder. The abuse is not limited to physical abuse it comes in many forms, including sexual, verbal, emotional, and psychological abuse, as well as degenerate. There are many reasons and theories behind the facts, all are true to a certain degree in most situations. Some say that alcoholics are principally more violent and prone to aggression, which makes their children a convenient target.The alcohol might be making them aggressive, or they may aggressive by nature, which is exacerbated by the alcohol. Also, since alcohol and child abuse are connected, many alcoholics were maltreated as children themselves, and as a result, are more likely to abuse their own children. This abuse puts their children at a greater risk of alcoholism, as well as abusing their future children, perpetuating the cycle. Emotional abuse and neglect commonly occur when the inebriated parent cannot correctly assess their own priorities, emotionally (or physically) abandons their child, or does not treat them as a parent should.Regardless of the reason, child abuse results in the children doing poorly in school, having self-esteem issues, anti-social behaviour, having feelings of guilt and shame, and suffering from depression. Abused children are also much more likely to grow up to abuse their own children, and to have substance abuse issues of their own. (Widom and Hiller-Sturmhofel 52-57) Despite the obvious hope that a child with alcoholic parents will learn from their mistakes and grow up to be an addiction-free adult, the opposite is usually true.The children of alcoholics are far more likely to become a product of their environment and develop substance abuse problems, likely including, but not limited to, alcoholism. Without proper role models and examples to base themselves off of, these children tend to fall into their parents habits and imitate their act ions. Alcoholic parents are also more likely to have raised their children in an environment where alcohol abuse was more common or more accepted than non-alcoholic parents, where they may have been influenced by their peers.Along with alcohol dependency, these children are at a much higher risk of developing other substance abuses issues and addictions, most commonly to benzodiazepines. They are also likely to suffer from symptoms of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and obsessive behaviours. Those who get laid to stay sober tend to exhibit these characteristics as well. Some children of alcoholics may fall victim to the aforementioned(prenominal) traps as their parents, while others excel, possibly due to a desire to do better in life than their parents. (Brooke, et al 1980-1981)Alcoholism is a very tough habit to break, however anyone who desires to try has a mass of options. There are certain medications in use that may be prescribed as part of treatment, but these usuall y accompany group therapy or psychotherapy, which is usually found to be the most effective. Alcoholics Anonymous, or AA, is the most common program, due to its availability, anonymity, efficacy, and affordability. It is a free international program based on the rough-cut support of its members, where alcoholics learn to take responsibility for their actions, and support others through their journeys.It is based on the 12 step, which are a set of principles and beliefs that focus on admitting to mistakes and addictions, recognizing a higher power, making amends, taking responsibility, and lot others through their addictions. AA famously schools its members that alcoholism is a disease, and that it is not something that they can control. However despite all the on hand(predicate) support, unless those who suffer from Alcohol Dependence genuinely have a wish to get better, and are automatic to put the in the time and effort required, their problems often do result in lasting effe cts, both for themselves and others. (Alcoholic.ca) (Alcoholics Anonymous).References Alcoholics Anonymous.Alcoholics Anonymous This is AA. Alcoholics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services Inc. , 2010. Web. 28 Nov 2010. . Alcoholics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous Is There an Alcoholic in Your life history?. Alcoholics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services Inc. , 2010. Web. 28 Nov 2010. . Medline Plus. Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse. Medline Plus. theme Library of Medicine, 15 Nov 2010. Web. 26 Nov 2010. . Parsons, Tetyana. Alcoholism and Its Effect on the Family. AllPsych Online. AllPsych and Heffner Media Group Inc. , 14 Dec 2003. Web. 28 Nov 2010. .Widom, Cathy Spatz, and Susanne Hiller-Sturmhofel. Alcohol Abuse as a Risk Factor for and Consequence of Child Abuse. Alcohol research health the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 25. 1 (2001) 52-57. Print. Alcoholic. ca. Alcoholism and Suicide. Alcoholic and Alcohol Treatment in Canada. Alcoholic. ca, 2009. Web. 29 Nov 2010. . Alcoholic. ca. Alcoholic and Alcohol Treatment. Alcoholic and Alcohol Treatment in Canada. Alcoholic. ca, 2009. Web. 29 Nov 2010. . Dozois, David, and Philip Firestone. Abnormal Psychology. quaternate Ed. , Perspectives. Toronto, Canada Pearson Education Canada, 2010.254. Print. Brooke, S, et al. Familial Loading for Alcoholism and Offspring Behavior Mediating and Moderating Influences. Alcoholism Clinical and experimental Research 34. 11 (2010) 1980-1981. Web. 28 Nov 2010. . Petrakis, Ismene L, et al. Comorbidity of Alcoholism and Psychiatric Disorders An Overview. Alcohol research health the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 26. 2 (2002) 81-89. Print. Davis, Janet Haggerty, and Wendy Autumn Frost. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome A contend for the Community Health Nurse. Journal of Community Health Nursing. 1. 2 (1984) 100-101. Print.

Gold and Diamond Mining of Africa Essay Example for Free

Gold and Diamond exploit of Africa Essay* Diamond archeological site in Africa Ever since the Kimberley diamond strike of 1868, South Africa has been a manhood leader in diamond production. The primary South Afri female genitals sources of diamonds, including seven large diamond mines well-nigh the country, are controlled by the De Beers Consolidated Mines Company. In 2003, De Beerss operations accounted for 94% of the domains total diamond outfit of 11,900,000 carats. Nicky Oppenheimer, the current Chairman of DeBeers. * The life of the miners The search for diamonds is not exactly easy. Many miners and diamond diggers in sub-Saharan Africa travel great distances to find hightail it and submit to gruelingly long hours for low wages or sometimes no wages in substandard conditions. Child working class has long been a problem in informal diamond mines, especially during times of war. Children have much been exploited to do excavation work because they are small enough to be lowered into small, narrow infernos by ropes to dig out sacks of dirt, which is in turn washed by other children in search of diamonds.During Sierra Leones 10-year civil war, children were often utilise as soldiers and workers in the rich Koidu diamond mines that funded the countrys rebels. USAID launched the Kono Peace Diamond shackle in 2002 to try to improve the working conditions in the mines particularly for children. But it is an uphill battle crosswise Africa to get children who are either family breadwinners, or fending for themselves or conscripted into slave-like labor to stop working and go to school. A child solider in Africa Land is often cleared and vegetated areas dug up to create open pit mines in he rushed search for diamond deposits, leaving them unsuitable for other farming activities.cozy mining in hilly areas also leads to erosion and, in turn, flooding. The salt, heavy minerals and chemical products from mining equipment can run off into rivers and poll ute vital water sources for mining communities and people living downstream. * gold mining in Africa South Africa accounted for 15% of the worlds gold production in 2002 and 12% in 2005, though the nation had produced as much as 30% of world output as recently as 1993. disrespect declining production, South Africas gold exports were valued at $3. billion USD in 2005.Almost 50% of the worlds gold militia are found in South Africa. Barrick Gold Corporation is the largest pure gold miningcompany in the world, with its provide in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and four regional business units (RBUs) located in Australia, Africa, North America and South America. Barrick is presently undertaking mining and exploration projects in Saudi Arabia, Papua New Guinea, the United States, Canada, Dominican Republic, Australia, Peru, Chile, Russia, South Africa,Pakistan, Colombia, genus Argentina and Tanzania. For 2008, it produced 7. million ounces of gold at a cash cost of US $443/ounce. As of Dece mber 31, 2008 its turn up and probable gold mineral reserves stand at 138. 5 million ounces. Peter monk, the flair of gold mining* The life of gold miners The unknown factor in South Africa is the future of labor costs. The mines employ several hundred thousand miners underground half the production costs are for wages. about of the gold miners are members of the sour National Union of Mineworkers, which is pressing hard both for political and affectionate reform, and for better wages and working conditions for its members.But the long-delayed beginnings of political reform in South Africa in the belated 1980s coincided with a slump in gold wrongs. The South African gold mines, many of them a century old, were by then the worlds deepest, and were technically very difficult and financially very expensive to act even in spite of the low wages paid to the miners. The quality of the ore was slowly dropping the modal(a) gold ore now averages less than 5 grams of gold per tonne. Winnie Mandela is on record as saying to black miners, You hold the golden key to our liberation.The moment you stop digging gold and diamonds, that is the moment you will be free. She could not be more wrong. If the gold mines close, the economic disaster will be visited most on the poorer section of society, the blacks. The South African reforms were predicated absolutely on a stable and healthy economy. In 1999, the price of gold dropped to a low point around $250/oz. This was very bad news for South African gold companies, South African gold miners, and the South African government. Gold companies scrambled to reorganize and contour their operations.By the time the price again reached $290 again in early 2000, the gold industry had changed dramatically, in South Africa and globally. Health problems of gold miners who worked underground include decreased life expectancy increased absolute frequency of cancer of the trachea, bronchus, lung, stomach, and liver increased frequenc y of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), silicosis, and pleural diseases increased frequency of insect-borne diseases, much(prenominal) as malaria and dengue fever noise-induced hearing loss increased prevalence of certain bacterial and viral diseases and diseases of the blood, skin, and musculoskeletal system.These problems are briefly documented in gold miners from Australia, North America, South America, and Africa. In general, human immunodeficiency virus infection or excessive alcohol and tobacco consumption tended to exacerbate existing health problems. Miners who used elemental mercury to amalgamate and extract gold were heavily contaminated with mercury. Among individuals exposed occupationally, concentrations of mercury in their air, fish diet, hair, urine, blood, and other tissues significantly exceeded all criteria proposed by various national and international regulatory agencies for security measures of human health.

The Ethics Of Gay Marriage Essay Example for Free

The Ethics Of Gay Marriage EssayObviously, there are several problems inherent to trying to conclude definitively whether or not God, the ledger, or religion in general has an absolute stance on the issue of whether or not homosexualityand by extension, spousals between homosexualsis a sin, and therefore, a violation of Gods ethics.The most signifi houset problem is the event that religion is a matter of faith, and faith need not be proven or support to be deemed true. With this in mind, there remains a legitimate reason for those who are not of necessity ghostlike to closely examine the Bible for evidence supporting the ethics of gay jointure because in at least peerless survey, a 55% majority of respondents believes it is a sin to engage in homosexual behavior, and that view is much more than prevalent among those who have a high level of religious commitment (76%) (Pew gathering). Since much of the debate over the ethics of gay marriage has resulted in laws being passed to encumber same-sex marriage by defining marriage as an act between single man and one woman, and these laws are passed by the majoritya majority that primarily turns to the Bible for ethical answersproving the validity of same-sex marriage in the same arena seems an excellent place to begin, simply absent a pull up stakesingness to reevaluate ones faith based on a new interpretation or a new argued logic, other avenues must be explored by those who believe gay marriage is indeed ethical. The U.S. Census post began tracking Un marry colleague Households in 1990, and the statistics collected during the 2000 Census revealed that of 165,449,101 total households, 59, 969,000 households identified as all Married-Couple Households or exclusive Partner Households. 54,493,232 identified as Married-Couple Households (80.9% of total partnered households) and 594,391 identified as same-sex partner, Unmarried Partner Households (85% of total partnered households) (CITE).If these numbe rs are accurate, it appears that more coupled households are made up of homosexual partners than straightaway partners, a statistic that flies in the face of a common argument against gay marriage that it will undermine an already fragile institution and increase the rate of divorce. It appears that more same-sex couples have formed a solid, living union than have opposite-sex couples, and that its not homosexuals who are falling apart at the married seams. Historically, those who have not fit the social majority have been denied equal rights. An obvious parallel can be drawn between interracial and same-sex marriage. It took the Supreme Court to declare that the law against interracial marriages violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the 14th Amendment. With its ratiocination, the court held that such a right is cover under the Fourteenth Amendment because such decisions are extreme to our survival and our consciences. As such, they must necessarily bear with the individual rather than with the state (Cline). Many would argue that unlike racial heredity, homosexuality is a choice, but whether or not this is true is irrelevant. The United States of America is built on a number of fundamental rights that are so obvious, that The Declaration of Independence deems them unalienable. Beyond the words of the Declaration, our country protects the freedom of choice with a passion verging on vengeance, which means one has to consider the freedom to have faith no more or less important than the freedom to love. The problem remains the circular relationship between religion, ethics, morality, and apiece individuals interpretation of that circular relationship. It is this degree of necessary interpretation that makes a concrete decision about the ethics of gay marriage so difficult.ReferencesBuehler, R. Bridges crossways the Divide. Retrieved September 09, 2006, from http//www.gotquestions.org/about.html.Buehler, R. Bridges Across the Divide. On b ridge building and Bible reading. Retrieved September 09, 2006, from http//www.gotquestions.org/about.html.Cline, A. Loving v. Virginia (1967) Race, Marriage, and Privacy. About.Com. Religion and Spirituality. Retrieved September 09, 2006, from http//atheism.about.com/od/ courtdecisions/a/LovingVirginia.htm.Elgin, D. (2003, July-August). The self-guiding evolution of civilizations. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 20, 323-337. Retrieved September 06, 2006, from Expanded Academic ASAP via Thomson Gale (A106143461).GotQuestions.Org. About GotQuestions.org. Retrieved September 08, 2006, from http//www.gotquestions.org/about.html.GotQuestions.Org. What does the Bible say about gay marriage / same sex marriage? Retrieved September 08, 2006, from http//www.gotquestions.org/gay-marriage.html.Pew Forum on Religion Public Life, The. sacred Beliefs Underpin Opposition to Homosexuality. November 18, 2003. Retrieved September 08, 2006, from http//pewforum.org/docs/index.php?DocID=37R obinson, B.A. ReligiousTolerance.Org. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Retrieved September 07, 2006, from http// www.religioustolerance.org/aboutus.htm.Townsley, J. Search for Gods substance and truth. Bridges Across the Divide. Retrieved September 09, 2006, from http//www.bridges-across.org/ba/faith/jt_sfgh.htm.Townsley, J. Search for Gods heart and truth. Addendum 4 David and Jonathon. Bridges Across the Divide. Retrieved September 09, 2006, from http//www.bridges-across.org/ ba/faith/jt_add4.htm.U.S. Census Bureau. Married- Couple and Unmarried Partner Households (2000). (Table 1). Table. Married and Unmarried-Partner Households by Metropolitan Residence Status 2000. February 2003. http//www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-5.pdf.

Ottoman Empire Study Guide Essay Example for Free

Ottoman conglomerate Study Guide EssayDevshirme Every 2 years or so, young Christians were taken and practised and converted to Islam. They would either be janissaries (foot soldiers) but ones with intellectual promise went to work in the g all overnment. Many became powerful. more or less were slaves? Because the enslavement of the Muslims was non in allowed. The power was NOT hereditary (like the Chinese). So the sultan surrounded himself with people who did not have families. Millet System Each religion had their own leader-Kept Jews and Christians happy-But they were lighten viewed as cabin class citizens. -Everyone in a Millet still had to pay taxes to Empire though.-The Christians and Jews had to pay a special tax called the Jyzia. Jyzia was overpriced tax. It showed favor to the Muslims. If you converted to Islam then you would not have to pay the tax. -Jews normally had more respect for this clay because they never really were respected and had a country -Muslims regarded the Christians and Jews with a sort of respect because they are all Abrahamic Religions. But they were skeptical of Christianity because of the holy trinity and they believed that that meant they were poly, not monotheistic. Sleyman Suleyman the Magnificent-10th Ottoman Sultan-Had long army-Warlike-Enforced the Law of Fratricide which was the act of killing all male relatives of the sultans so they would not over take the throne. -Was married to Hrrem (the smiling one) who was the head concubine fell in love with her. This was erratic because by this time it was not necessary for alliances through marriage to be formed.Selim the Sot Successor of Suleyman.-Did not do much. Slacker. Preferred Eunuchs and concubines, and drank a lot MuradIII Successor to Selim-Manipulated by mother and wife-But still had military advancesMehmet Sultan Mehmet II-Conquered Constantinoplerenamed it Istanbullargest city in Europe (700,000+ people)architecturally unbelievable (symbolized wealth and power)-Formed a navyenabled Ottomans to conquer Venice and Mediterranean Islands -Improved Armyguns + gunpowder + technical advantages-portable gunsDecline of Ottomans Inflation, created an atmosphere of bribery and corruption. non able to pay Janissaries so they no longer had complete power. Army became less efficient. Sultans stopped instruction their sons to rule so they became terrible rulers. So power went to the Janissaries and became a hereditary thing. Empire soon began to be ruled by the military.

Youtube In school Essay Example for Free

Youtube In school EssayAlmost every student and teacher has come across the YouTube ban. In just about every school in the nation,the website, YouTube is banned. Most students are frustrated and view the YouTube ban illogical. YouTube is a great resource for students and teachers alike, it can help them both learn and teach. Allowing the site could greatly improve the way a student is educated. some people believe that youtube should be allowed in school, and non all of them are students who want to work it to mess around. There are many useful videos on YouTube that are being kept from the youth of the States. There is a wide variety of how-to, instructional and separate educational videos students could use for projects and research. YouTube could also let students express their creativity through projects that could be viewed by the public. legion(predicate) educational websites use youtube videos to support the things that are taught in the classroom.An example of this is Khan Academy, which is one of the leading mathematics websites and its owner, Salman Khan, a graduate of MIT and Harvard Business School, teaches a variety of math lessons through hands on deliver and by doing the lesson in YouTube videos, which teachers and students dont have access to. Many social studies/ history videos could abet history teachers in their lesson plans, such as videos from the History Channel, while keeping the kids entertained and still educating them.Many people who believe that youtube should non be allowed in school think that access to the site would only when distract students from their learning experience. The presence of videos that have non-educational, inappropriate, violent or explicit content may caseful them to believe that. Students could possibly watch videos such as those during school hours that could distract them, or teach them something not up to par to the DOE standards. somewhat argue that students or teachers could use it as a t ake of cyber-bullying and an invasion of privacy. A video could be made putting down a teacher, student or group of students.A video like this could easily be shared and spread through the campus and students. Some videos may show students that did not want to be seen by the public, or their parents didnt want their fry to be put on display. So should YouTube be allowed in schools all around America? I think that the pros of allowing youtube heavily outweigh the cons and that it should be allowed in school. Many testament argue that it will not go well but I think that if the staff and faculty of the school monitored the use of the site by the students then any misuse could be prevented and/or stopped.I know that this is a controversial topic and others may have different opinions, so I hope I helped you fudge up yours. Bibliography http//www. nytimes. com/2012/03/10/education/youtube-finds-a-way-off-schools-banned-list. html? pagewanted=all_r=0 http//people. cornellcollege. edu/ MNeef12/ http//www. debate. org/debates/Youtube-should-be-allowed-in-schools-and-not-blocked/1/ http//acrawford24. wordpress. com/2012/09/23/youtube-in-schools-should-it-be-allowed-as-a-teaching-tool/.

Personality Theories Essay Example for Free

Personality Theories EssayThis paper will comp ar the Psychodynamic Theory and the humane Theory. A description of each guess and its leading theorist will help in pointing out both their dissimilitudes and similarities. Psychodynamic Theory, demonstrable by Sigmund Freud in the 1900s, believes that most human behavior stems from their unconscious. That record comes from beliefs, memories, feelings, and instincts of which the item-by-item is not aw be of (Feldman, 2010). According, to Freud the personality is made up of three major components the Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id is the raw inborn part with sole purpose is to crop tension caused by aggression and irrational impulse, operating according to the pleasure principle (Feldman, 2010). Ego playing as a buffer between the Id and the outside world, the Ego is developed soon after carry and strives to balance the desires of the Id. The Ego operates according to the reality principle, making decisions permitting proble m solving at a higher(prenominal) level than the Id is capable of (Feldman, 2010).While the Superego is part of the conscience representing right from wrong in society, thus creation handed down by ones p bents, and teachers, the Superego keeps one from improper behavior by create one to feel guilty. Freud nominate that personality development has several distinct stages Oral (birth 18 months), anal retentive (18 months 3 years), Phallic (3-6 years), Latency (6 years to adolescence), and Genital (adolescence to adulthood) (Feldman, 2010).Another huge part of Freuds theory is the defense mechanisms which include Repression, Regression, Displacement, Rationalization, Denial, Projection, Sublimation, and Reaction formation. These defense mechanisms be used to cope with lifes anxieties. humane Theory believes that it is at the conscience level that all pack have the drive and tendency to apparent motion forward. Both Maslow and Rogers is theorist that believe in the Humanistic Theory, believing that we all have a canonic need of self- fulfillment to reach our highest potential in our own unique ways.This Theory suggest that people see and judge themselves through the eyes of others causing one to become preoccupied with what others think. This is why matted positive regard from family and friends is so important to how one feels about themselves. The acceptance one gets from others has a go effect on both emotional and cognitive development. Maslow believes a person grows in stages based on needs beginning with physical needs such as food, and sexual needs, than safety needs, a warm safe place to live or an organized life, on to a sense of belonging, where one feels machine-accessible or loved.Maslow believes these needs have to be met in order to have self-esteem which drives one to be all they can be (Feldman, 2010). The Humanistic Theory suggests that personality is much about ones unique self and freedom of choice. In comparing the Psychodynamic Theory and the Humanistic Theory, the most noticeable difference is that the Psychodynamic believes that the determinants of personality are of the unconscious, while the Humanistic believes more of the opposite in that personality determinants are of the conscious.The Humanistic suggest that it is the interaction of both nature and the environment that set the path for personality, while the Psychodynamic believes that personality is more inherited that nurture factors. These two theories are opposite in their believes of free will, Humanistic stresses the freedom of individual choices, and Psychodynamic stress the view that behavior is directed by factors outside of ones self (Feldman, 2010). Psychodynamic suggest that a persons personality keeps the same characteristics throughout a persons life.On the other hand Humanistic believes that personality characteristics remain flexible and resilient throughout ones life. Assessing personality can be done in many different ways. There is psychological running play that are used to help people understand more about themselves. Psychological test are based on norms which are created by giving the same test to a large weigh of people and comparing their answers. Self-Report measures personalities by asking a person to explain a sample of their behavior, these reports are than used to look for particular characteristics.Projective testing is done by showing an ambiguous stimulus and asking that the person tell a story about the stimulus. The responses are considered to be projections of ones personality. These are just a few of the ways personality can be assessed. While the Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories are different in their beliefs they both hold valid aspects at evaluating human personalities. Just as there is no one way to test personality there is no one theory. Reference (Feldman, 2010) Feldman, R. S. (2010). psychological science and your life. New York, NY McGraw Hill.

Greek tragedy Essay Example for Free

Greek cataclysm EssayA view from the bridge is a powerful play about two immigrants that picky the American border from Italy, illegally. The play is set in the nineteen thirties to the nineteen fifties sort out after the Second World War. It overly has striking similarities with Greek catastrophe, being linear and having a chorus, or narrator (Alfieri). Eddie, the tragic protagonist has a fatal flaw (his improper love of, and almost infantile fixation with, Catherine) and the final climax at the end of the play is an few other feature of this style. Alfieri plays a huge start up in maintaining the audiences dramatic interest he is like the chorus in a Greek tragedy always reminding the audience of the tragedy. He holds the play together without actually taking much subdivision in the action, however his real job is to unfold the play to the audience, he influences our audience and keeps us hooked onto the play, as though it was a cliff-hanger, the audience, including me , believe Alfieri because he is a lawyer and he knows the most.The bridge represents Alfieri, he is a link between Italians and Americans, Eddie and Rodolpho, he has equal opinions on them both and does not take sides he is real un-bias. It seems that Alfieri is drowned in stress and needs someone to talk to that is why he talks to the audience at certain intervals of the play. Its also as though Alfieri is retelling the play as he mostly speaks in late(prenominal) tense. Alfieri really dejects to introduce drama to the play in his chat with Eddie before the fistfight scene this is a really tense chat between them both as Eddie starts to reveal his true timberings for Catherine without realising himself.You also begin to realise how easily the situation is flowing when Alfieri redeems himself powerless to stop anything from happening. Alfieri makes us feel as though there will be a terrible ending, I watched it coming, step after step, this makes the audience feel as though th ere will be a violent ending. This creates dramatic irony as we know something the characters dont also expression tension and suspense the longer we inhabit for the dramatic climax of the play. Eddie Carbone plays the largest part in creating drama before the end of act one, he creates conflict and reveals his hate for Rodolpho.On the other hand Marco develops his understanding that Eddie doesnt approve of Rodolphos feelings for Catherine. Eddie likes to assert himself as the alpha male, and a man in Eddies look is a hard working, physically strong family man, and Marco has all of these features, he is working hard to support his family and when he lifts the chair that Eddie cannot, this shows that Marco is physically strong, and it seems Eddie respects Marco, but sees him as a threat to his position in the Carbone family. Eddie also finds other ways to create drama in the scene.Lemons are green is the small contribution that Rodolpho makes to the conversation between Marco and Eddie, Eddies reply towards Rodolpho, I know lemons are green, for Christ sake is kind of vicious and makes it rather obvious he doesnt like Rodolpho and makes it quite awkward for Marco to talk to Eddie as though nothing is wrong. This adds some tension to the scene. also, Eddie begins to imply that Rodolpho aint right, this quite obviously means that Eddie think Rodolpho is gay when really he is on the button looking for any excuse for Catherine not to be with him.During the long talk about Rodolphos skills and attributes Eddie says But if I could cook, if I could sing, if I could make dresses, I wouldnt be on the water-front and I would be like in a dress store. In the actual play Eddie repeats the graduation sentence three times, as though an obvious attempt to stress to his family that he aint right. You can tell this by what he says after I would be like in a dress store, this is blatantly a womans job however cooking, interpret and dancing was considered gay in the 1950 s.You can see that Marco is unimpressed by what Eddie is trying to imply. Uneasily. This stage program line proves that Marcos reaction to what he has implied about his brother is negative and he is uneasy to talk to Eddie at all, or that he knows what is coming when Eddie asks What do you say, Marco, we go to the bouts next Saturday night. You never seen a fight, did you? Eddies mind is also quite obviously filled with violence and hatred, and it is blatant that he purposely wants Rodolpho to fight because he asks him after having the probability to ask his brother first.This also creates tension in the scene as we know what it is all building up similarly and we are eager to see how it unfolds. Furthermore, during the fight Eddie says to Rodolpho It also seems that Eddies sexual jealousy has influence his thoughts as he chooses to insult Marco by implying that his wife is cheating whilst he works in America, this is a very tense moment as we are unaware of how Marco will rea ct to this comment and how this whitethorn affect his relationship with Eddie, this furthermore builds tension in the scene.Eddie also feels betrayed by Catherine, he has raised her as his own and he treats her like his daughter, he feels that by Catherine wanting to marry Rodolpho and living her own keep that she is being ungrateful for all that he has done for her. He feels that Catherine owes him a living. All the way during the boxing scene, you get this vivid sense of pressure building up in Eddie. It seems to me that Eddie offers Rodolpho to a boxing tot up to release his anger after watching him and Catherine dance to a very symbolic song, paper doll.When Eddie first asks Rodolpho to dance, strong tension is built within the audience, because we deport already been hinted by Alfieri that something bad is going to happen, and this is the nonpareil moment for this to happen. Eddie says to Rodolpho, Come on kid, you cant hurt me. This is ironic because although Rodolpho may n ot possess the distinctiveness to physically hurt Eddie, his is causing him mass amounts of emotional pain, just sharing feelings with Catherine. The stage directions also have a huge effect in this part of the play, He has bent the rolled paper and it unawares tears in two.This tells the audience that Eddie has had enough of Rodolpho, and that all his anger and true feelings for Catherine are boiling over. Also this hints to the Audience that something bad is about to happen, because Eddie twisting the newspaper in two pieces shows that it has all become too much for him and he has to let his anger out. This creates dramatic tension within the audience as we wait for something to happen. The way Catherine acts towards Eddie could have triggered this sudden outburst normally Catherine is really obedient towards Eddie and does what he says, she sees him as her contract and him his daughter.

Russia Pestel Essay Example for Free

Russia Pestel EssayRecent dissolution of the form communistic state of the Soviet Union to the Russian Federation. Russias economy is in transition from a a state-controlled to a market-controlled economy. Vladimir Putin, moved to reduce the political influence of oligarchs soon after taking office, forcing rough into exile and prosecuting others.BbcStill strained relationship between the Russian Federation and the West (U.S) rooted from the icy warUncertainty of control within the Russian government2003 October Billionnaire Yukos oil boss Mikhail Khodorkovsky arrested and held in men over investigations into tax evasion and fraud. Mr Khodorkovsky had supported liberal opposition to President Putin. (bbc)The energy giant Gazprom is polish to the Russian state and critics say it is little more than an economic and political tool of the Kremlin.Existing taxes on oil companies* Royalty (6-16% of gross revenue).* Mineral resource tax (10% of gross revenue less the valuate of the taxpayer spending on exploration). * Excise tax (66 rubles/tonne of oil, equal to 2.5%, according to calculations of the Ministry of Finance based on the weighted average price of Russian oil and taking into consideration export and domestic sales). http//www.ogj.com/articles/ shanghai/volume-99/issue-33/special-report/the-russian-oil-gas-industry-analysis-raises-questions-about-russian-tax-proposal.htmlUncertainties about legal rights, infrastructure, ownership, and liability have slowed development despite the high hopes of many western corporations. http//archive.greenpeace.org/ humor/arctic99/reports/blackice-8.htmlYet, by end of 1998, the oil industry was fully privatized, substantiallyderegulated, and had undergone significant internal restructuring (see Table 1 below). Even more recently, the Russian government has adopted (1998-2000) and enacted (1999-2002) a new Tax Code that by most accounts exceeds Western standards.5 For example, it introduced a 13 percent flat tax o n personal income, cap corporate contributions to the social insurance fund, reduced the profits tax (a.k.a. corporate income tax) rate from 35 to 24 percent, abolished turnover taxes (as of 2003), tied export tariffs directly to the price of oil, and established new accounting procedures that are on par withInternational Accounting StandardsForeign Investment policiesThe Yukos crisis began when Mikhail B. Khodorkovsky, chief executive of Yukos and Russias richest man, was jailed at dot Oct. 25 on charges of fraud, forgery and tax evasion. Mr. Khodorkovsky insists his arrest and the prosecution of other large Yukos shareholders are politically motivated. http//www.nytimes.com/2003/11/03/world/signs-of-damage-control-in-russia-s-oil-scandal.htmlTax and royalties http//new.aibse.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Patton2008.pdf

Effects of Central Bank Independence on Inflation Rates

Effects of telephone exchange brink emancipation on pretension RatesAbstr cropThis theme analyses and explains the effects of key rim exemption on a unsophisticateds lump localise and its frugal performance there later. It deals with the benefits believed to come on with independency and the military commission of m bingletary indemnity to the substitution patois, the determinants and accuracy of the advocator of interchange border independency (CBI), and the different stir that CBI has on demonstrable and growth countries. The studies and test conducted nurture shown that CBI paltryers fanfargon in substantial countries merely when in create countries it might brace the drive out effects, importantly referable to the decimal point of freedom, and factors worry traditions, the faithfulness, and the statue of the prudence which convert cross dashs countries.1. IntroductionThis paper in b omit markets to workplace the consanguinity in the m idst of down the stairslying strand emancipation (CBI) and rising prices trains among different countries developing and industrialise. The main search problem that I intend to examine is whether r solelyy posit freedom croupe let round off the ostentation ranges of the countries that destine emancipation to their exchange brims, and whether this crowd out head plicationr to improved frugal performance.What is discussed in this paper is non that whether teleph i exchange blaspheme independency (CBI) washstand subvert largeness and therefore pompousness variation, just now likewise whether this can be achieved at petty(a)-pitched cost. The economies presented in the study overwhelm both those of the f literal countries, e.g. the U.K., as well as those in conversion e.g. Russia that take away recently gained take in in the EU. In this paper I analyze the impact of CBI on largeness, the benefits that atomic number 18 believed to come alo ng with CBI and the factors utilise in metre CBI. You exit see that CBI can earn different forms of measurement that construct slightly different results, hence the powerfulness of the CBI king is in like manner examine.The tenableness for choosing this topic for further study is simply because during the past twain decades there has been a considerable melt down towards primaeval strand emancipation across several(prenominal) countries, with the belief that this go away improve their pretension levels and then contribute to stinting growth. soon enough, as you will see further on, this is non almodal values the trip, as erect about studies use up revealed contradicting results, and economists and academics continue their studies to deal a clerer picture of this issue.2. The Spread of CBI and The Reasons for ItTo begin with, it is amazing how fast CBI has parcel out among countries and organisations since the late eighties. one and only(a) round-eyed exp lanation of this spread is A.Alesinas (1988 845) rural atomic number 18ament unconditional substitution intrusts take a shit been associated with a displace fairish puffiness value and may have been responsible for reducing politically bring on volatility of fiscal form _or_ system of regimen and pretentiousness2.1 Should a primordial stick become independent? booklet (2005) explains that CBI was adopted to avoid workable disputes between political parties as a interchange bank is seen as a provider of information. galore(postnominal) economists have expressed their opinion on the spread of CBI an opposite(prenominal)s have colligate it to a way of avoiding the piece of political get goingure by some(a) governanceal parties (Miller, G. 1998, White 1994). Others have linked it to the infrequent changes of the brass (de Haan and vant Hag, 1995).That is, fundamental bank independency in many cases was adopted after(prenominal) power points of high ge arr (prenominal) lump in order to reduce it, due to the flash targeting pop off a important bank is capable of pursuing. It can also be associated with the attraction of foreign investment and hence sparing growth as a consequence of the targets posture and the liberty with which the bank can then contain (Maxfield, 1997). In countries inside the European pith, CBI is a perquisite side by side(p) the Maastricht Treaty (1992) for adopting the euro currency.Overall and match to booklet (2005), independency has always been related to the adoption of anti- ostentationary measures for pursuing monetary insurance, but its explanation lies within the sociology of the pecuniary elites and the politics legitimizing their insurance preferences. The sympathys easy achieving price constancy through gaining fundamental bank independency, Cukierman (1996) explains are several and include the breakdown of an some other(prenominal) institutions like the European monetary System (EMS) that had been responsible for maintaining price stability which is considered as the single and nigh significant accusive of a primeval bank.Ilieva and Gregoriou (2005) hint that in change economies rudimentary bank emancipation has increased mainly due to the desire of such(prenominal) countries like e.g. Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, and so forth, to join the European Union and the acquis communautaire that applicant countries should adopt. As they continue to reason the addiction to CBI, they add that other incentive for CBI is the international financial institutions such as the IMF (International Monetary Fund) that require certain criteria to be met in the first place making unconditional loans, and these criteria are feasibly met with the help of CBI. Also, countries are attracted to CBI as this will attract potential investors by improving the nations creditworthiness.Cukierman, A. (1996) analyses developments since the late 1980s to the effectual libert y of primal banks and to its supposeing the measurement of CBI, the interaction of aboriginal banks with the government, its effect on the economy, its determinants, etc agree to Cukierman, the trend towards CBI is due to a quest for price stability which is due to the fol belittleding two reasonsFirst, following the stagflation of the septetties and the adverse economic performance of some high inflation countries, in Latin the States and elsewhere, conventional wisdom concerning inflation and sure growth has changed. Whereas during the sixties the recognized view was in line with Keynesian dogma, that some inflation is broad(a) for growth, during the eighties and nineties became that inflation and the associate uncertainties retard growth. (1996 3)The good economic performance of Japan and Germany, countries with already low inflation added more(prenominal) than(prenominal)(prenominal) value to the higher(prenominal) up concept.Second, the fast growth and internati onalization of capital markets raised the importance of price stability as governments and private investors sought-after(a) to enhance their access to broadening world financial markets. (1996 3)2.2 Types of rally aver IndependenceIndependence with regards to interchange banking can be categorized into different groups, depending on the horizontal surface of freedom and the subject from which the primal bank becomes independent. The major eccentrics of independency areLegal license, where the bank is partly responsible to the government and legislation provides a framework within which the key bank and the government cooperate on certain issues. This form of liberty varies significantly among countries as it depends on how strong in the law in for each one country and the ground level to which it is followed. However, the degree of ratified license, videlicet LVAW, as it will be shown below, has been utilise by many as a major index of mensuration the degree of CBI .Goal independence refers to the case where the aboriginal bank is allowed to set its own goals, e.g. price stability, money append, inflation targeting. However in most cases below this type of independence, the bank will decide on its goals with the confirmation of the relevant governmental departments. In this way, goal independence helps avoiding conflicts among fiscal and monetary policies, and increases the level of transparency and credibility of the central bank over its goals.Operational independence is the most vulgar form of independence and is followed by many central banks around the world, for instance, the cuss of England since 1997. It involves the government setting the banks goals e.g. a 2% level of inflation, but the central bank universe free to study the instruments e.g. interest rates, to meet the targets set by the government.Another form of independence is managerial independence, by which the central bank has the power of appointing its own stuff, set its budget, etc. This form is a necessity for the equalence of the other abovementioned forms of central bank independence and is therefore granted to all central banks that can call themselves independent.2.3 The case for central bank independenceThere is a huge great deal towards central bank independence by both the public and the governments, in the belief that independent central banks will not wholly when achieve low inflation rates and price stability, but will subsequently lead to long economic growth and development. However CBI is an issue that drives further interrogation before determining whether it should be adopted by all countries. This depends on the economic state of the country, whether it is a actual or a developing country or even on the demand of self-reliance by the political parties within the country since by granting independence the government must pass to the bank the responsibilities of e.g. controlling the interest rates, etc. over which it apply to have the power.Another issue that needs to be examined before granting independence to a central bank is the political stability and the degree of question within the country. This is because in measures of uncertainty and instabilities, e.g. anterior to elections, the public party favors CBI as an independent central bank is more objective in its fictional character and always forward looking without ignoring the long-term effects of its decisions.The majority of the parties unnatural by the actions of an independent central bank, i.e. the government as well as the common public are attracted by CBI because of the greater answerableness and transparency the bank is equipped with when adopting a greater degree of indecorum. Moreover, it is anticipate to bring start levels of inflation and this is the main reason why people welcome CBI and the number of central banks becoming independent has been increase over the years. The main reason behind this expectation is be cause a central bank generally acts in favor of the public and in addition to the fact that it becomes free from the government and any political pressures, it is in a position to avoid short-term temptations regarding low interest rates which the government usually uses prior to electoral periods, for the sake of long-term low inflation and price stability, which in combination with other exogenous factors can result in economic growth.Moreover, when a central bank gains its independence through institutional reform it becomes capable of appointing its own governor consequently it moves away from political interference, and can also set an explicit inflation target. Additionally and as Carlstrom, T.C. and Fuerst, S.T. (2006) explain independence helps a central bank in constraining the behavior of fiscal authorities. That is, it can prevent people and limitedly the government following fiscal policy from acting in their short-term best interests, recognizing that any actions in terpreted in the short-term e.g. overturning the interest rates to attract investments, may become undesirable in the long-term, e.g. rising inflation levels as with higher demand from low interest rates, the prices will likely increase. In this way, CBI also prevents the fiscal authorities from inflating the short-term for delivering e.g. favorable exchange rates. Hence, monetary policy can weather in a more credible way and following the targets set, markets will know what to expect thus shock absorbers will be limited.However an independent central bank is also likely in extreme cases to bring so low levels of inflation that can be harmful to the economy. According to Epstein, G. (2007), the 3.5% knock off in inflation levels by countries adopting an inflation-targeting monetary policy (IMF, 2006) is questionable as to whether this decline will improve economic growth. Explicitly, if the inflation level of a country is already low and the central bank adopts an inflation-tar geting monetary policy then the resulting lower inflation level might prove dangerous to the economy by generating economic cycles.Cukierman (1996) has unquestionable two calve feeleres for reasoning the urge towards central bank independence and explaining the benefits that can be enjoyed from independence.These include the theoretical entree according to which in the short-run monetary policy can be conducted in such a way that it allows for some inflation so that it can achieve employment, high economic activity and low interest rates. Hence, policy micturaters can expect some degree of inflation which they will present in the form of nominal wage and capital market contracts. In this way however, policy makers will have to keep inflation at a level that would balance the real equilibrium if they had been committed to zero-inflation.As a result of this discretionary use of monetary policy, this is subject to inflationary bias, and this bias can only be minimised if monetary policy is delegated to an independent central bank because only this institution is free to recognise how to operate monetary policy and takes interest for the most part if not only to price stability.And the empirical approach by which the case of CBI lies on empirical evidence showing that countries with an independent central bank have lower inflation rates and higher growth rates per capita output. An illustration of such a country is overbold Zealand2.3.1 The case of New ZealandNew Zealand is a country whose central bank managed to purge the inflation level after being granted with greater independence. The Reserve blaspheme of New Zealand was granted independence in 1989 following the Reserve lingo of New Zealand Act of 1989 and had therefore established an explicit inflation target.The result was to reduce inflation levels from 7.6% during the years 1955-1988 from when the reserve bank was not independent, down to just 2.7%, after becoming independent, during the perio d 1989-2000. The latter rate is now considered one of the final among industrialized countries.It is obvious that among all OPEC countries, the central bank of New Zealand managed to achieve the lowest inflation rate, in particular during the mid-nineties.What happened during the period of the inflation decline was that the reserve bank of New Zealand went through a reform that resulted in it being granted with independence and a greater degree of self-direction, leading to low inflation.Specifically, prior to 1989 it employ to be an arm of the government. Monetary policy used to be subject to the ministry of finance and therefore the government. As a result, the level of independence was one of the lowest among industrialized countries, while the level of inflation was of the highest. plain then, the descent between central bank independence was negative, even though the results were the reverse of what is considered optimum, i.e. greater independence, lower inflation.In 198 9, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act was passed by law. This act codifies inflation targeting and gives more autonomy to the countrys central bank in order to meet its objectives. According to the Act the central banks primary function isto formulate and implement monetary policy directed to the economic objective of achieving and maintaining stability in the general level of prices. (Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1989 as quoted in Carlstrom T.C. and Fuerst, S.T., 2006, p.3).The impact of the Act on New Zealands economy and specifically the Reserve Banks autonomy can be seen in embodiment 2 below, which compares the degree of independence across different time periods and among different countries.The findings of the New Zealand case show that if the country had adopted independence earlier then its average inflation rate would be 3.4% rather than 7.6% that it demonstrablely used to be, expect all other things being equal. Following this assumption, CBI itself would be suffi cient to reduce worldwide inflation levels from 5.6% down to 3.8%.Despite the considerable drop in New Zealands inflation rate it is still questionable whether this drop was caused solely by CBI, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to quantify by how much the inflation reduction was due to CBI. tight conclusions cannot be made yet since the data used in this case is of limited sample size and comparisons would therefore be insufficient. What is avowedly is that the alliance between CBI and inflation is similar across time. Any changes to the military group of this relationship are mostly due to macroeconomic and other factors such as the state of the economy, the state of the government, e.g. democracy, etc. and others that will be explained later in this paper.3. Measuring Central Bank IndependenceThe degree of CBI for each central bank varies according to the state of each country and to compliance with the law. As Cukierman explains, in developing countries where complia nce with the law is poor, a suitable substitute for CBI would be the turnover rate of central bank governors, whereas in industrialised countries such a substitute would be levelheaded independence. Generally, when the appropriate index of independence is used, the results indicate an inverse relationship between CBI and inflation.However, care should be taken not to mistake legal independence with essential independence, as legal independence is necessary but does not guarantee actual independence legal independence is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for a truly independent CB. (Cukierman, A., 2001 7). Exceptions exist, like developed countries, where legal independence seems to be a good procurator because law is highly complied.For a clearer picture of the effectiveness of CBI on the economy, it is preferred that some variables that make up the CBI index are used in combination, or that some indices are used only for a specific purpose. For instance, legal indep endence is a good proxy for actual independence in developed countries rather than in developing ones.3.1 The Cukierman advocate of CBIThe method that will be used the most in this paper to measure the degree of central bank independence and its relationship with inflation will be Cukierman Index (1992), the most astray accepted and used index for this purpose. Initially, the exact definition of the Cukierman Index according to Siklos, P. (1992 65) is An indicator of the degree of autonomy enjoyed by several central banks.Cukierman Index to demonstrate graphically the measures of CBI and inflation during two different decades, namely the 1980s and the mid-ninetiesAs can be seen in the above graphs during the 1980s even though CBI was not common across countries, there was a negative relationship between CBI and inflation level. This nub that the greater the level of independence of a central bank, the lower the level of inflation within the particular country. It is thus obvious that the correlation between CBI and inflation is negative, whereas the errors boilers suit are not fitted closely on the regression line. We should note however that the decade of 1980s was before central banks especially those within industrialized countries underwent major reforms in their statutes which then allowed them a greater degree of autonomy.During the 1990s as Siklos, P. (2002) explains, most central banks went through a reform, as there was a trend towards CBI. As a result the general degree of CBI increased and all index values were revised upwards, the government granting more autonomy to central banks, in the belief that greater independence would just be capable for morose the level of inflation.However, the relationship between CBI and inflation during the 1990s turned out to be the reverse of that of the previous decade. That is, the correlation between CBI-inflation now became weaker but positive since the regression line on the run off gram in figure 3b h as an upward slope, baseborning that inflation increases with the degree of independence. It is hard to explain what was ill-use with the findings of the 1990s that caused the correlation to be positive, however one might argue that CBI increased for all countries during the 1990s and so it also reflects the inflation performance of the previous decade, although the more independent central banks have delivered lower inflation levels in the 1980s.Furthermore, the Cukierman Index used is believed to contain some inaccuracies concerning the measurements of the degree on independence and thenceforth the relationship of that with inflation because it was encompassing from the 1980s towards the 1990s in a different way than the one initially specified. For this reason more tests will be carried out to explain and compare the effectiveness of measuring CBI using the Cukierman Index in contrast to other indices developed for the same purpose, for instance Alesina and Summers Index.The Cukierman Index will also be used to test the effect of CBI on inflation in transition economies, establish on Ilieva and Gregoriou (2005) paper regarding inflation performance, i.e. average inflation and inflation variance, and CBI in transition economies during the period 1991-2003.3.2 The determinants of the CBI indexThe degree of independence varies across countries. This is not only due to factors such as the type of independence of each bank, although the most common is operational independence, the degree of law compliance in each country, and tradition, but some other magisterial factors as well. Such factors are described and categorized by Cukierman, who presents some hypotheses on these factorsHypotheses about the determinants of CBIInitially, it is widely accepted that any form of inflationary bias raises the independence of central banks to the degree that politicians wish to grant to the CB. The main idea behind this concept is that the benefits of delegating monetary policy to an independent central bank will be higher when inflation bias is higher in instances of e.g. employment reaction to inflation shocks. This delegation according to Cukierman helps in preventing the competing political party from taking on activities not favoured by the government.Secondly, Cukierman et al (1992, 2001) make the hypothesis thatthe wider are the financial markets and the more elastic the supply of funds to government with esteem to the interest rate, the more likely is the CB to be independent. (2001 19).Additionally, Maxfield (1995) supports that political authorities favour CBI where there is need for funds. When this need is high as he explains, the government delegates more authority to the central bank in order to signal the nations creditworthiness.Finally, the cases of countries that have experienced extremely high levels of inflation in the past, like Germany, Austria, and Brazil, show that such countries are more likely to delegate independence to a central bank so that politicians do not interfere with monetary policy.3.3 The measurement of the CBI IndexDue to the general concept that the degree of independence of a nations central bank plays a crucial role upon the policy actions and inflation, Cukierman (1992) presents an analysis of the effects of CBI on inflation and provides various indicators of CBI. However, as he explains, the degree of CBI is determined by several factors from legal to ethnical some of which are difficult to measure and quantify, therefore the impact of CBI on inflation varies among countries and there is a certain degree of uncertainty about the level of CBI. As a result, the measurement and the creation of an index of CBI have been based on legal independence, as the degree of CBI also depends on the degree of independence granted to the bank by the law.Despite the variations in the degree of CBI, it can be deduced that a low degree of CBI is linked with higher levels of inflation and inflation v ariability, while the level of credibility of a central bank with a low degree of CBI will be lower.Cukierman presents collar different sets of indicators of CBI a proxy for legal independence and proxies for the deviations of actual from legal independence. Independence deliberate under these proxies is limited specifically to the Central banks ability to meet a single objective price stability. The reason for using several proxies in measuring CBI is because each proxy is a noisy indicator that captures a somewhat different facial gesture of CB independence (Cukierman, 1992 370), so using a combination of them reduces this noisiness of the overall measure3.3.1 Measuring and cryptanalytics Legal Central Bank IndependenceUsing a proxy of legal independence is resilient in making comparisons with previous studies on the impact of CBI on economic issues because all existing attempts on the features of an independent central bank rely on the banks legal independence.Cukierman pre sents the indices of legal aspects of CBI by separating into four groups the variables which make for a legally independent central bank. These groups areChief executive percentager CEO form _or_ system of government formulation PFFinal Objectives OBJ Limitations on add LLand codes them by the degree of independence of each group for the central bank of each of the countries included in the study.The main assumptions made are the central banks whose single objective is price stability are considered to be more independent, so are central banks with stricter limitations on lending from the CB. The coding involves sixteen different variables in a scale from 0 (least independence) to 1 ( utmost independence), during the time period 1950-1989, separated into four different decades.Due to the narrow definition of each of the variables used and the consequent lack of precision and multicollinearity problems that may arise, these variables are coalesced into eight legal variables by ju st conniving the unweighted mean of the codings used.Furthermore, it is necessary to have an additional single index of legal independence for each country to appraise the aggregate legal independence of the CB. This index can have two alternatives, the LVAU and the LVAW, that are computed by calculating the average of the codings of the first eight variables as described above. Table 1 in Appendix A shows the ranking of the countries according to the legal independence of their central banks as measured by the LVAU during the eighties decade. The LVAW would also give a similar picture.Looking at the table of results one can see that among the septette most highly-ranked countries four are developed (Switzerland, West Germany, Austria and U.S.), while among the seven least-ranked countries four are little developed (Morocco, Panama, Yugoslavia and Poland). Generally, the top 10% of the rankings is comprised of developed countries, whereas the bottom 10% is backbreaking with les s(prenominal)(prenominal) developed countries. One should also note that there had been no hyperinflation experienced by developed countries during the 1980s, while some of the Latin America countries have, e.g. Brazil and Bolivia with a rate of 230%. This according to Cukierman may suggest that legal CBI may be neither necessary nor sufficient for low inflation. (1992 382).3.3.2 The turnover rate of Central Bank governors as a proxy for actual independenceAs already explained, the legal side of the central bank is just one of the several determinants of actual CBI. There is no clear dictatorial indicator of actual CBI, but Cukierman (1992) presents two sets of such indicators. One is based on the actual turnover rate of the central banks governor, and the other is based on the answers given to a questionnaire on CBI.Table 2 in Appendix B shows the CB governors turnover rates for the period 1980-1989. It is assumed that the lower the turnover rate the higher the degree of actual i ndependence. Although the results are chronologically old, it is obvious that turnover rates in less developed countries occupy a range that has never been experienced by developed countries. It is indicative that more than half of the less developed countries have a turnover rate higher than the maximum of the rate of developed countries. It is clear that less developed countries experience higher inflation rates, on the grounds of lower actual CBI.On the other hand, low turnover does not necessarily imply a high level of CB independence on the grounds that a relatively subservient governor will tend to stay in stain longer than a governor who stands up to the executive branch. (Cukierman, 1992 385)Critically assessing the results, since the maximum turnover rate for developed countries is 0.2 (.e. five years) suggests that the turnover proxy may not be effective proxies for actual CBI for the sample of developed countries, whereas this proxy can be considered indicative for the s ample of developing countries since these have turnover rates portentous 0.2.3.3.3 Central Bank Independence from answers to a questionnaireAnother aspect of characterizing CBI is the questionnaire. at a lower place this method, answers were obtained from qualified central bankers from 24 countries during the period 1980-1989. The main questions asked covered the issues of legal independence, final monetary policy objectives, monetary policy instruments, actual independence and its divergence from the law and intermediate targets and their indicators.In coding the variables of the questionnaire, the bank is assumed to be more independent, all other things being equal, if the following hold the term of office of the CB governor is longer than that of the government, limitations exist on lending from the CB which the government is in no position of altering, and in cases where stock targets exist because these mean that the CB is more free to meet its price stability target.Table 3 in Appendix C shows the ranking of central banks by aggregate indices of independence according to questionnaire responses. The aggregate indices of QVAU and QVAW reflect the law and the way it is implemented in practice respectively, as well as outstanding information about actual independence, and are very similar (?=0.99). The rankings agree to earlier studies that central banks of developed countries are more independent. However, the normal of QVAU for developed countries, that is 0.6 for Britain and Lebanon, is greater than the median for less developed countries, that is 0.49 for Uruguay, and this contradicts the above findings for legal independence using the LVAU.When measuring the degree of CBI it should be taken into account that the measures used above fail to quantify all the aspects of CBI as some are difficult to quantify. Such aspects are the quality of the banks research department and its standing in comparison to other economic research institutions within the public domain (Cukierman, 1992). Independence is generally higher in countries with highly-developed financial markets according to Cukierman because the supervision of financial institutions is under the authority of the CB, so the larger the market the more wide the span of the CBs authority.4. Central Bank Independence and Inflation TargetingIn this branch the impact of central bank independence on inflation, inflation variability and the economy overall is analyzed using a model to test whether CBI can actually lower inflation, and comparing the effects of CBI by using both the Cukierman and the Alesina indices of CBI. Additionally, the costs of achieving lower inflation through central bank independence are also explained.MacCallum, B. (1995) believes that it is strong will that is necessary for proper policy demeanor by central banks, not rules and regulations. A policy maker, i.e. a central banker in this case should act immediately to an inflation shock to restore the pr oblem without letting any spEffects of Central Bank Independence on Inflation RatesEffects of Central Bank Independence on Inflation RatesAbstractThis paper analyses and explains the effects of central bank independence on a countrys inflation rates and its economic performance thereafter. It deals with the benefits believed to come along with independence and the delegation of monetary policy to the central bank, the determinants and accuracy of the index of central bank independence (CBI), and the different impact that CBI has on developed and developing countries. The studies and test conducted have shown that CBI lowers inflation in developed countries but in developing countries it might have the reverse effects, mainly due to the degree of independence, and factors like traditions, the law, and the statue of the economy which vary across countries.1. IntroductionThis paper intends to study the relationship between central bank independence (CBI) and inflation levels among diff erent countries developing and industrialized. The main research problem that I intend to examine is whether central bank independence can lower the inflation rates of the countries that grant independence to their central banks, and whether this can lead to improved economic performance.What is discussed in this paper is not only whether central bank independence (CBI) can lower inflation and hence inflation variability, but also whether this can be achieved at low cost. The economies presented in the study include both those of the developed countries, e.g. the U.K., as well as those in transition e.g. Russia that have recently gained entrance in the EU. In this paper I analyze the impact of CBI on inflation, the benefits that are believed to come along with CBI and the factors used in measuring CBI. You will see that CBI can have different forms of measurement that produce slightly different results, hence the effectiveness of the CBI index is also analyzed.The reason for choosin g this topic for further study is simply because during the past two decades there has been a considerable move towards central bank independence across several countries, with the belief that this will improve their inflation levels and thus contribute to economic growth. However, as you will see further on, this is not always the case, as some studies have revealed contradicting results, and economists and academics continue their studies to get a clerer picture of this issue.2. The Spread of CBI and The Reasons for ItTo begin with, it is amazing how fast CBI has spread among countries and governments since the late 1980s. One simple explanation of this spread is A.Alesinas (1988 845) statementindependent central banks have been associated with a lower average inflation rate and may have been responsible for reducing politically induced volatility of monetary policy and inflation2.1 Should a central bank become independent?Folder (2005) explains that CBI was adopted to avoid possi ble disputes between political parties as a central bank is seen as a provider of information. Many economists have expressed their opinion on the spread of CBI others have linked it to a way of avoiding the blame of political failure by some governmental parties (Miller, G. 1998, White 1994). Others have linked it to the infrequent changes of the government (de Haan and vant Hag, 1995).That is, central bank independence in many cases was adopted after periods of high inflation in order to reduce it, due to the inflation targeting function a central bank is capable of pursuing. It can also be associated with the attraction of foreign investment and hence economic growth as a consequence of the targets set and the autonomy with which the bank can then operate (Maxfield, 1997). In countries within the European Union, CBI is a perquisite following the Maastricht Treaty (1992) for adopting the euro currency.Overall and according to Folder (2005), independence has always been related to the adoption of anti-inflationary measures for pursuing monetary policy, but its explanation lies within the sociology of the financial elites and the politics legitimizing their policy preferences. The reasons behind achieving price stability through gaining central bank independence, Cukierman (1996) explains are several and include the breakdown of other institutions like the European Monetary System (EMS) that had been responsible for maintaining price stability which is considered as the single and most significant objective of a central bank.Ilieva and Gregoriou (2005) suggest that in transition economies central bank independence has increased mainly due to the desire of such countries like e.g. Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, etc., to join the European Union and the acquis communautaire that applicant countries should adopt. As they continue to reason the addiction to CBI, they add that another incentive for CBI is the international financial institutions such as the IMF (I nternational Monetary Fund) that require certain criteria to be met before making unconditional loans, and these criteria are feasibly met with the help of CBI. Also, countries are attracted to CBI as this will attract potential investors by improving the nations creditworthiness.Cukierman, A. (1996) analyses developments since the late 1980s to the legal independence of central banks and to its meaning the measurement of CBI, the interaction of central banks with the government, its effect on the economy, its determinants, etcAccording to Cukierman, the trend towards CBI is due to a quest for price stability which is due to the following two reasonsFirst, following the stagflation of the seventies and the adverse economic performance of some high inflation countries, in Latin America and elsewhere, conventional wisdom concerning inflation and real growth has changed. Whereas during the sixties the accepted view was in line with Keynesian dogma, that some inflation is good for growt h, during the eighties and nineties became that inflation and the associate uncertainties retard growth. (1996 3)The good economic performance of Japan and Germany, countries with already low inflation added more value to the above concept.Second, the rapid growth and internationalization of capital markets raised the importance of price stability as governments and private investors sought to enhance their access to broadening world financial markets. (1996 3)2.2 Types of Central Bank IndependenceIndependence with regards to central banking can be categorized into different groups, depending on the degree of freedom and the subject from which the central bank becomes independent. The major types of independence areLegal independence, where the bank is partly accountable to the government and legislation provides a framework within which the central bank and the government cooperate on certain issues. This form of independence varies significantly among countries as it depends on ho w strong in the law in each country and the degree to which it is followed. However, the degree of legal independence, namely LVAW, as it will be shown below, has been used by many as a major index of measuring the degree of CBI.Goal independence refers to the case where the central bank is allowed to set its own goals, e.g. price stability, money supply, inflation targeting. However in most cases under this type of independence, the bank will decide on its goals with the confirmation of the relevant governmental departments. In this way, goal independence helps avoiding conflicts among fiscal and monetary policies, and increases the level of transparency and credibility of the central bank over its goals.Operational independence is the most common form of independence and is followed by many central banks around the world, for instance, the Bank of England since 1997. It involves the government setting the banks goals e.g. a 2% level of inflation, but the central bank being free to choose the instruments e.g. interest rates, to meet the targets set by the government.Another form of independence is managerial independence, by which the central bank has the power of appointing its own stuff, set its budget, etc. This form is a necessity for the existence of the other abovementioned forms of central bank independence and is therefore granted to all central banks that can call themselves independent.2.3 The case for central bank independenceThere is a huge surge towards central bank independence by both the public and the governments, in the belief that independent central banks will not only achieve low inflation rates and price stability, but will subsequently lead to long-term economic growth and development. However CBI is an issue that needs further research before determining whether it should be adopted by all countries. This depends on the economic state of the country, whether it is a developed or a developing country or even on the demand of autonomy by the political parties within the country since by granting independence the government must pass to the bank the responsibilities of e.g. controlling the interest rates, etc. over which it used to have the power.Another issue that needs to be examined before granting independence to a central bank is the political stability and the degree of uncertainty within the country. This is because in times of uncertainty and instabilities, e.g. prior to elections, the public favours CBI as an independent central bank is more objective in its role and always forward looking without ignoring the long-term effects of its decisions.The majority of the parties affected by the actions of an independent central bank, i.e. the government as well as the general public are attracted by CBI because of the greater accountability and transparency the bank is equipped with when adopting a greater degree of autonomy. Moreover, it is expected to bring lower levels of inflation and this is the main reason w hy people welcome CBI and the number of central banks becoming independent has been increasing over the years. The main reason behind this expectation is because a central bank generally acts in favor of the public and in addition to the fact that it becomes free from the government and any political pressures, it is in a position to avoid short-term temptations regarding low interest rates which the government usually uses prior to electoral periods, for the sake of long-term low inflation and price stability, which in combination with other exogenous factors can result in economic growth.Moreover, when a central bank gains its independence through institutional reform it becomes capable of appointing its own governor thus it moves away from political interference, and can also set an explicit inflation target. Additionally and as Carlstrom, T.C. and Fuerst, S.T. (2006) explain independence helps a central bank in constraining the behavior of fiscal authorities. That is, it can pre vent people and especially the government following fiscal policy from acting in their short-term best interests, recognizing that any actions taken in the short-term e.g. lowering the interest rates to attract investments, may become undesirable in the long-term, e.g. rising inflation levels as with higher demand from low interest rates, the prices will likely increase. In this way, CBI also prevents the fiscal authorities from inflating the short-term for delivering e.g. favorable exchange rates. Hence, monetary policy can run in a more credible way and following the targets set, markets will know what to expect thus shocks will be limited.However an independent central bank is also likely in extreme cases to bring so low levels of inflation that can be harmful to the economy. According to Epstein, G. (2007), the 3.5% drop in inflation levels by countries adopting an inflation-targeting monetary policy (IMF, 2006) is questionable as to whether this decline will improve economic gr owth. Explicitly, if the inflation level of a country is already low and the central bank adopts an inflation-targeting monetary policy then the resulting lower inflation level might prove dangerous to the economy by generating economic cycles.Cukierman (1996) has developed two separate approaches for reasoning the urge towards central bank independence and explaining the benefits that can be enjoyed from independence.These include the theoretical approach according to which in the short-run monetary policy can be conducted in such a way that it allows for some inflation so that it can achieve employment, high economic activity and low interest rates. Hence, policy makers can expect some degree of inflation which they will present in the form of nominal wage and capital market contracts. In this way however, policy makers will have to keep inflation at a level that would balance the real equilibrium if they had been committed to zero-inflation.As a result of this discretionary use o f monetary policy, this is subject to inflationary bias, and this bias can only be minimised if monetary policy is delegated to an independent central bank because only this institution is free to choose how to operate monetary policy and takes interest mostly if not only to price stability.And the empirical approach by which the case of CBI lies on empirical evidence showing that countries with an independent central bank have lower inflation rates and higher growth rates per capita output. An example of such a country is New Zealand2.3.1 The case of New ZealandNew Zealand is a country whose central bank managed to drop the inflation level after being granted with greater independence. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand was granted independence in 1989 following the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act of 1989 and had therefore established an explicit inflation target.The result was to reduce inflation levels from 7.6% during the years 1955-1988 from when the reserve bank was not independe nt, down to just 2.7%, after becoming independent, during the period 1989-2000. The latter rate is now considered one of the lowest among industrialized countries.It is obvious that among all OPEC countries, the central bank of New Zealand managed to achieve the lowest inflation rate, especially during the 1990s.What happened during the period of the inflation reduction was that the reserve bank of New Zealand went through a reform that resulted in it being granted with independence and a greater degree of autonomy, leading to low inflation.Specifically, prior to 1989 it used to be an arm of the government. Monetary policy used to be subject to the ministry of finance and therefore the government. As a result, the level of independence was one of the lowest among industrialized countries, while the level of inflation was of the highest. Even then, the relationship between central bank independence was negative, even though the results were the reverse of what is considered optimum, i.e. greater independence, lower inflation.In 1989, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act was passed by law. This act codifies inflation targeting and gives more autonomy to the countrys central bank in order to meet its objectives. According to the Act the central banks primary function isto formulate and implement monetary policy directed to the economic objective of achieving and maintaining stability in the general level of prices. (Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1989 as quoted in Carlstrom T.C. and Fuerst, S.T., 2006, p.3).The impact of the Act on New Zealands economy and specifically the Reserve Banks autonomy can be seen in figure 2 below, which compares the degree of independence across different time periods and among different countries.The findings of the New Zealand case show that if the country had adopted independence earlier then its average inflation rate would be 3.4% rather than 7.6% that it actually used to be, assuming all other things being equal. Following this assumption, CBI itself would be sufficient to reduce worldwide inflation levels from 5.6% down to 3.8%.Despite the considerable drop in New Zealands inflation rate it is still questionable whether this drop was caused solely by CBI, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to quantify by how much the inflation reduction was due to CBI. Firm conclusions cannot be made yet since the data used in this case is of limited sample size and comparisons would therefore be insufficient. What is true is that the relationship between CBI and inflation is similar across time. Any changes to the strength of this relationship are mostly due to macroeconomic and other factors such as the state of the economy, the state of the government, e.g. democracy, etc. and others that will be explained later in this paper.3. Measuring Central Bank IndependenceThe degree of CBI for each central bank varies according to the state of each country and to compliance with the law. As Cukierman explains, in developi ng countries where compliance with the law is poor, a suitable proxy for CBI would be the turnover of central bank governors, whereas in industrialised countries such a proxy would be legal independence. Generally, when the appropriate index of independence is used, the results indicate an inverse relationship between CBI and inflation.However, care should be taken not to mistake legal independence with actual independence, as legal independence is necessary but does not guarantee actual independence legal independence is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for a truly independent CB. (Cukierman, A., 2001 7). Exceptions exist, like developed countries, where legal independence seems to be a good proxy because law is highly complied.For a clearer picture of the effectiveness of CBI on the economy, it is preferred that some variables that make up the CBI index are used in combination, or that some indices are used only for a specific purpose. For instance, legal independence i s a good proxy for actual independence in developed countries rather than in developing ones.3.1 The Cukierman Index of CBIThe method that will be used the most in this paper to measure the degree of central bank independence and its relationship with inflation will be Cukierman Index (1992), the most widely accepted and used index for this purpose. Initially, the exact definition of the Cukierman Index according to Siklos, P. (1992 65) is An indicator of the degree of autonomy enjoyed by several central banks.Cukierman Index to demonstrate graphically the measures of CBI and inflation during two different decades, namely the 1980s and the 1990sAs can be seen in the above graphs during the 1980s even though CBI was not common across countries, there was a negative relationship between CBI and inflation level. This means that the greater the level of independence of a central bank, the lower the level of inflation within the particular country. It is thus obvious that the correlation between CBI and inflation is negative, whereas the errors overall are not fitted closely on the regression line. We should note however that the decade of 1980s was before central banks especially those within industrialized countries underwent major reforms in their statutes which then allowed them a greater degree of autonomy.During the 1990s as Siklos, P. (2002) explains, most central banks went through a reform, as there was a trend towards CBI. As a result the overall degree of CBI increased and all index values were revised upwards, the government granting more autonomy to central banks, in the belief that greater independence would just be adequate for lowering the level of inflation.However, the relationship between CBI and inflation during the 1990s turned out to be the reverse of that of the previous decade. That is, the correlation between CBI-inflation now became weaker but positive since the regression line on the scatter gram in figure 3b has an upward slope, meaning that inflation increases with the degree of independence. It is hard to explain what was wrong with the findings of the 1990s that caused the correlation to be positive, however one might argue that CBI increased for all countries during the 1990s and so it also reflects the inflation performance of the previous decade, although the more independent central banks have delivered lower inflation levels in the 1980s.Furthermore, the Cukierman Index used is believed to contain some inaccuracies concerning the measurements of the degree on independence and thereafter the relationship of that with inflation because it was extended from the 1980s towards the 1990s in a different way than the one initially specified. For this reason more tests will be carried out to explain and compare the effectiveness of measuring CBI using the Cukierman Index in contrast to other indices developed for the same purpose, for instance Alesina and Summers Index.The Cukierman Index will also be used to test t he effect of CBI on inflation in transition economies, based on Ilieva and Gregoriou (2005) paper regarding inflation performance, i.e. average inflation and inflation variance, and CBI in transition economies during the period 1991-2003.3.2 The determinants of the CBI indexThe degree of independence varies across countries. This is not only due to factors such as the type of independence of each bank, although the most common is operational independence, the degree of law compliance in each country, and tradition, but some other systematic factors as well. Such factors are described and categorized by Cukierman, who presents some hypotheses on these factorsHypotheses about the determinants of CBIInitially, it is widely accepted that any form of inflationary bias raises the independence of central banks to the degree that politicians wish to grant to the CB. The main idea behind this concept is that the benefits of delegating monetary policy to an independent central bank will be hi gher when inflation bias is higher in instances of e.g. employment reaction to inflation shocks. This delegation according to Cukierman helps in preventing the competing political party from taking on activities not favoured by the government.Secondly, Cukierman et al (1992, 2001) make the hypothesis thatthe wider are the financial markets and the more elastic the supply of funds to government with respect to the interest rate, the more likely is the CB to be independent. (2001 19).Additionally, Maxfield (1995) supports that political authorities favour CBI where there is need for funds. When this need is high as he explains, the government delegates more authority to the central bank in order to signal the nations creditworthiness.Finally, the cases of countries that have experienced extremely high levels of inflation in the past, like Germany, Austria, and Brazil, show that such countries are more likely to delegate independence to a central bank so that politicians do not interfe re with monetary policy.3.3 The measurement of the CBI IndexDue to the widespread concept that the degree of independence of a nations central bank plays a crucial role upon the policy actions and inflation, Cukierman (1992) presents an analysis of the effects of CBI on inflation and provides various indicators of CBI. However, as he explains, the degree of CBI is determined by several factors from legal to cultural some of which are difficult to measure and quantify, therefore the impact of CBI on inflation varies among countries and there is a certain degree of uncertainty about the level of CBI. As a result, the measurement and the creation of an index of CBI have been based on legal independence, as the degree of CBI also depends on the degree of independence granted to the bank by the law.Despite the variations in the degree of CBI, it can be deduced that a low degree of CBI is linked with higher levels of inflation and inflation variability, while the level of credibility of a central bank with a low degree of CBI will be lower.Cukierman presents three different sets of indicators of CBI a proxy for legal independence and proxies for the deviations of actual from legal independence. Independence measured under these proxies is limited specifically to the Central banks ability to meet a single objective price stability. The reason for using several proxies in measuring CBI is because each proxy is a noisy indicator that captures a somewhat different aspect of CB independence (Cukierman, 1992 370), so using a combination of them reduces this noisiness of the overall measure3.3.1 Measuring and Coding Legal Central Bank IndependenceUsing a proxy of legal independence is vital in making comparisons with previous studies on the impact of CBI on economic issues because all existing attempts on the features of an independent central bank rely on the banks legal independence.Cukierman presents the indices of legal aspects of CBI by separating into four groups th e variables which make for a legally independent central bank. These groups areChief executive officer CEO Policy formulation PFFinal Objectives OBJ Limitations on lending LLand codes them by the degree of independence of each group for the central bank of each of the countries included in the study.The main assumptions made are the central banks whose single objective is price stability are considered to be more independent, so are central banks with stricter limitations on lending from the CB. The coding involves sixteen different variables in a scale from 0 (least independence) to 1 (maximum independence), during the time period 1950-1989, separated into four different decades.Due to the narrow definition of each of the variables used and the consequent lack of precision and multicollinearity problems that may arise, these variables are aggregated into eight legal variables by just calculating the unweighted mean of the codings used.Furthermore, it is necessary to have an additio nal single index of legal independence for each country to assess the aggregate legal independence of the CB. This index can have two alternatives, the LVAU and the LVAW, that are computed by calculating the average of the codings of the first eight variables as described above. Table 1 in Appendix A shows the ranking of the countries according to the legal independence of their central banks as measured by the LVAU during the eighties decade. The LVAW would also give a similar picture.Looking at the table of results one can see that among the seven most highly-ranked countries four are developed (Switzerland, West Germany, Austria and U.S.), while among the seven least-ranked countries four are less developed (Morocco, Panama, Yugoslavia and Poland). Generally, the top 10% of the rankings is comprised of developed countries, whereas the bottom 10% is concentrated with less developed countries. One should also note that there had been no hyperinflation experienced by developed count ries during the 1980s, while some of the Latin America countries have, e.g. Brazil and Bolivia with a rate of 230%. This according to Cukierman may suggest that legal CBI may be neither necessary nor sufficient for low inflation. (1992 382).3.3.2 The turnover rate of Central Bank governors as a proxy for actual independenceAs already explained, the legal status of the central bank is just one of the several determinants of actual CBI. There is no clear systematic indicator of actual CBI, but Cukierman (1992) presents two sets of such indicators. One is based on the actual turnover rate of the central banks governor, and the other is based on the answers given to a questionnaire on CBI.Table 2 in Appendix B shows the CB governors turnover rates for the period 1980-1989. It is assumed that the lower the turnover rate the higher the degree of actual independence. Although the results are chronologically old, it is obvious that turnover rates in less developed countries occupy a range t hat has never been experienced by developed countries. It is indicative that more than half of the less developed countries have a turnover rate higher than the maximum of the rate of developed countries. It is clear that less developed countries experience higher inflation rates, on the grounds of lower actual CBI.On the other hand, low turnover does not necessarily imply a high level of CB independence on the grounds that a relatively subservient governor will tend to stay in office longer than a governor who stands up to the executive branch. (Cukierman, 1992 385)Critically assessing the results, since the maximum turnover rate for developed countries is 0.2 (.e. five years) suggests that the turnover proxy may not be effective proxies for actual CBI for the sample of developed countries, whereas this proxy can be considered indicative for the sample of developing countries since these have turnover rates exceeding 0.2.3.3.3 Central Bank Independence from answers to a questionnai reAnother aspect of characterizing CBI is the questionnaire. Under this method, answers were obtained from qualified central bankers from twenty-four countries during the period 1980-1989. The main questions asked covered the issues of legal independence, final monetary policy objectives, monetary policy instruments, actual independence and its divergence from the law and intermediate targets and their indicators.In coding the variables of the questionnaire, the bank is assumed to be more independent, all other things being equal, if the following hold the term of office of the CB governor is longer than that of the government, limitations exist on lending from the CB which the government is in no position of altering, and in cases where stock targets exist because these mean that the CB is more free to meet its price stability target.Table 3 in Appendix C shows the ranking of central banks by aggregate indices of independence according to questionnaire responses. The aggregate indi ces of QVAU and QVAW reflect the law and the way it is implemented in practice respectively, as well as important information about actual independence, and are very similar (?=0.99). The rankings agree to earlier studies that central banks of developed countries are more independent. However, the median of QVAU for developed countries, that is 0.6 for Britain and Lebanon, is greater than the median for less developed countries, that is 0.49 for Uruguay, and this contradicts the above findings for legal independence using the LVAU.When measuring the degree of CBI it should be taken into account that the measures used above fail to quantify all the aspects of CBI as some are difficult to quantify. Such aspects are the quality of the banks research department and its standing in comparison to other economic research institutions within the public sector (Cukierman, 1992). Independence is generally higher in countries with highly-developed financial markets according to Cukierman becau se the supervision of financial institutions is under the authority of the CB, so the larger the market the more wide the span of the CBs authority.4. Central Bank Independence and Inflation TargetingIn this section the impact of central bank independence on inflation, inflation variability and the economy overall is analyzed using a model to test whether CBI can actually lower inflation, and comparing the effects of CBI by using both the Cukierman and the Alesina indices of CBI. Additionally, the costs of achieving lower inflation through central bank independence are also explained.MacCallum, B. (1995) believes that it is strong will that is necessary for proper policy behaviour by central banks, not rules and regulations. A policy maker, i.e. a central banker in this case should act immediately to an inflation shock to restore the problem without letting any sp